FARMING  FOR  PROFIT 


FARM  CROPS 

THEIR  CULTIVATION 
AND  MANAGEMENT 


FRANK  D.GARDNER ! 


X 


FARMING    FOR    PROFIT 

FARM   CROPS 

THEIR  CULTIVATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

A  NON-TECHNICAL  MANUAL  FOR  THE  CULTIVATION, 
MANAGEMENT  AND  IMPROVEMENT  OF  FARM  CROPS 


BY 

FRANK  D.  GARDNER 

PROFESSOR    OF   AGRONOMY,  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE 
AND   EXPERIMENT  STATION 


ASSISTED  BY 

C.  F.  NOLL  ALVA  AGEE 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Pennsylvania  Director,  Agricultural  Extension, 

Stale  College  Rutgers  College 

W.  H.  DARST  PROF.  E.  F.  CAUTHEN 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Pennsylvania  Associate  in  Agriculture,  Alabama  Agricultural 

Stale  College  Experiment  Station 

GEORGE  T.  McNESS 

Tobacco  Expert,  Texas  Experiment  Station 


ILLUSTRATED 


THE   JOHN    C.   WINSTON    COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA  CHICAGO 


*—* 


Copyright,  1918,  by 
THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1916,  by 
L.  T.  MYERS 


PREFACE 


This  book  makes  a  popular  appeal  to  all  men  engaged  in  farming, 
whether  amateurs  or  professionals.  It  is  designed  to  be  a  handy  reference 
work  on  the  cultivation  and  management  of  farm  crops.  Technical  terms 
and  lengthy  discussions  have  been  avoided. 

Ages  of  farm  experience  and  a  few  generations  of  agricultural  research 
have  given  us  a  vast  store  of  practical  knowledge  on  tilling  the  soil  and 
raising  crops.  This  knowledge  is  scattered  through  many  different  volumes 
on  different  phases  of  the  subject,  in  experiment  station  bulletins,  agri- 
cultural journals  and  encyclopedias.  The  important  facts  on  which  the 
most  successful  farming  is  based  are  here  brought  together  in  readable 
form. 

The  subject-matter  is  arranged  in  three  parts,  the  first  dealing  with 
the  various  farm  crops,  their  selection  and  cultivation;  the  second  with 
the  diseases  of  farm  crops  and  their  remedies,  insect  pests  and  their  control, 
and  insecticides  and  fungicides;  and  the  third  includes  valuable  tables 
of  agricultural  statistics  showing  the  cost  per  acre  of  producing  farm  crops, 
the  fertility  of  farm  produce,  percentage  composition  of  agricultural 
products  and  so  forth. 

Each  department  has  been  prepared  by  a  specialist  in  the  subject 
presented,  and  his  name  appears  at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter.  Those 
unacknowledged  have  been  prepared  by  myself.  References  are  given 
here  and  there  to  books  and  pamphlets  that  may  be  helpful  to  the  farmer 
who  wishes  to  have  more  exhaustive  information  on  specific  subjects. 

The  illustrations  have  been  secured  from  many  sources.  Due  credit 
has  been  given  these. 

Special  acknowledgment  is  due  the  publishers  of  this  volume  and 
the  other  volumes  in  the  series  for  their  conception  and  for  many  helpful 
suggestions  in  the  presentation  of  the  subject-matter. 

Acknowledgment  is  also  due  Professor  E.  L.  Worthen  and  Professor 
R.  S.  Smith,  both  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College,  for  helpful  sugges- 
tions and  criticisms  on  crop  rotations.  I  wish  also  to  especially  acknowl- 
edge the  valuable  editorial  assistance  of  my  wife  in  the  preparation  of 
the  manuscript. 

FRANK  D.  GARDNER. 

415290 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.     FARM  CROPS 

Chapter  1.    CROP  IMPROVEMENT . 19 

Plant  selection — Kinds  of  variation — Hybridization— Choice  of  varieties. 

Corn. 

The  ear-row  method — Ideals  in  selection  of  corn. 

Wheat,  Oats  and  Barley. 

First  year — Second  year — Third  year — Fourth  year — Fifth  and  succeeding  years 
— Crossing  of  varieties  in  small  grain  breeding. 

Potatoes. 

Production  of  seedlings — Hill  and  tuber  selection — Opportunities  in  crop  improve- 
ment. 

Chapter  2.    THE  ROTATION   OF  CROPS 28 

Rotations  defined — Purpose  of  rotations — Maintain  good  physical  condition  of 
soil — Conserve  organic  matter  and  nitrogen — Provide  for  extermination  of  weeds 
— Lessen  insect  depredations — Reduce  plant  diseases — Improve  environment  of 
crops  —  Rotations  insure  returns  —  Prevent  reduced  crop  yields  —  Rotations 
systematize  farming — Rotations  distribute  labor — Essentials  of  a  good  rotation 
—Sequence  of  crops — Length  of  rotations — What  crops  to  grow — When  to  apply 
manure  and  fertilizers — Some  suggested  rotations — Methods  of  planning  and 
recording  rotations. 

Chapter  3.    CpRN   (ZEA  MAIZE) 39 

Classification  of  corn — Varieties  of  corn — The  chief  corn-growing  states — Soil 
and  climatic  adapt  at ion— Crop  rotation  for  corn — Plowing  for  corn — Manures 
and  fertilizers  for  corn — Time  and  method  of  planting — Rate  of  planting — Depth 
of  planting — Preparation  of  seed  for  planting — Cultivation  of  corn — Methods 
of  harvesting  —  Storing  corn  —  Shrinkage  of  corn  —  Market  grades  of  corn  — 
Composition  and  feeding  value  of  corn. 

Corn  Improvement. 

Securing  seed — Selecting  seed — Care  of  seed — Germination  test — Germinating 
box — Improvement  by  selection  and  breeding. 

Chapter  4.    WHEAT   (WINTER  AND   SPRING) 59 

Wheat  production  in  the  United  States — Climatic  and  soil  adaptation — Rotations 
— Preparation  of  the  seed-bed — Fertilizers  for  wheat — Time  of  seeding — Rate 
of  seeding — Grain  drills — Winter  killing — Wheat  districts — District  No.  1 — Dis- 
trict No.  2 — District  No.  3 — District  No.  4 — District  No.  5 — Wheat  improvement 
—Harvesting — Cost  of  producing  wheat — Enemies  of  wheat:  Weeols — Insects 
— Fungous  diseases — Treatment. 

Chapter  5.     OATS,  BARLEY  AND   RYE 72 

Oats. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptation — Classes  and  varieties — Seed  oats  and  their  prepara- 
tion for  seeding— Preparation  of  the  seed-bed — Fertilizers  and  manures  for  oats 
— Time,  rate  and  manner  of  seeding — Oats  as  a  nurse  crop — Harvesting,  shock- 
ing and  threshing — Storing  and  marketing — Composition  and  feeding  value — 
Value  of  oats  for  hay  and  soiling  purposes—Oat  straw  and  its  utilization — Cost  of 
producing  oats — Oat  improvement. 

(7) 


-.—  -.-  ^  -c4.  *>V\»  i  Barley. 

Soil  aricT  climatic  adaptation— Classes  and  varieties — Preparation  of  land  and 
seeding — Harvesting  and  use — Use  of  by-products. 

Rye. 

Adaptation  and  culture — Uses  of  rye. 

Chapter  6.      BUCKWHEAT,   RICE,   FLAX,   EMMER,   KAFFIR   CORN  AND 

SUNFLOWER 82 

Buckwheat. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptation  —  Varieties  —  Preparation  of  soil  and  seeding  — 
Fertilizers  and  rotations — Harvesting  and  threshing — Uses  of  buckwheat. 

Rice. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptation — Preparation  of  land  and  seeding — Flooding  or 
irrigation — Harvesting  and  threshing — Yields  and  value. 

Flax. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptation — Preparation  of  land  and  seeding — Harvesting  and 
threshing — Yield  and  value  of  crop — Utilization — Diseases  of  flax. 

Kaffir  Corn. 
Regions  of  production — Value  and  uses — Varieties — Production  and  harvesting. 

Emmer. 
Sunflowers. 

Chapter  7.    MEADOW  AND   PASTURE   GRASSES 92 

Importance  and  value  of  grasses — Regions  of  production — Principal  grasses  of 
North  America — Valuable  characteristics — Choice  of  grasses — Seed  and  seeding 
— Harvesting. 

Timothy. 

Soil  and'climatic  adaptation  —  Advantages  of  timothy  —  Seed  and  seeding  — 
Fertilizers  and  manures  —  Mixing  timothy  with  other  grasses  and  clovers  — 
Harvesting  —  Pasturing  —  Seed  production  —  Composition  and  feeding  value  — 
Improvement  of  timothy — Marketing  the  hay. 

Blue  Grass. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptation — Importance  of  blue  grass — Methods  of  establishing 
— Pasture  and  maintenance. 

Redtop. 
Importance  of  redtop — Culture — Yields  and  uses. 

Orchard  Grass. 

Importance — Culture — Yields  and  uses. 

Brome  grass — Tall  oat  grass — The  fescues — Rye  grasses — Sudan  grass — Bermuda 

grass — Johnson  grass — Para  grass — Guinea  grass. 

Chapter  8.    THE  CLOVERS 109 

Characteristics  of  clovers — Uses  of  clovers — Inoculation — Composition  and  feed- 
ing value — Harvesting  methods. 

Red  Clover. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptation — Endurance  of  red  clover — Securing  clover  seed — 
Preparation  of  seed-bed — Time,  manner,  rate  and  depth  of  seeding — Nurse  crops 
for  clover — Fertilizers  for  clover — After  treatment  of  clover — Harvesting  of 
clover — Clover  seed  production — Red  clover  troubles. 

Alsike  clover — White  clover — Ladino  clover — Crimson  clover — Sweet  clover — 
Lespedeza  or  Japan  clover — Bur  clover— Hop  clover. 


CONTENTS  9 


Chapter  9.    ALFALFA 121 

Distribution  of  alfalfa — Soil  and  climatic  adaptation — Essentials  for  success — 
Varieties  of  alfalfa— Sources  of  seed — Need  for  fertilizers  and  lime — Preparation 
of  seed-bed — Time,  rate,  depth  and  manner  of  seeding — Inoculation — After  treat- 
ment— Making  alfalfa  hay — Number  of  cuttings  and  yield — Other  uses  of  alfalfa — 
Composition  and  feeding  value — Irrigation  of  alfalfa— Seed  production. 

Chapter  10.    MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 132 

Extent,  value  and  importance — Essential  qualities  of  meadows  and  pastures — 
Advantages  of  meadows  and  pastures — Soil  and  climatic  requirements — Forma- 
tion of  meadows  and  pastures — Preparation  of  soil — Meadow  and  pasture  seed 
mixtures — Seeding  grasses  and  clovers — Treatment  of  meadows  and  pastures — 
Care  of  meadows  and  pastures — Improvement  of  meadows  and  pastures — Manur- 
ing, fertilizing  and  liming — Utilizing  aftermath — Capacity  of  pastures — Compo- 
sition and  palatability  of  pasture  grass  and  hay — Temporary  pastures. 

Chapter  11.    MISCELLANEOUS  ANNUAL  HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS....  144 

Cowpeas. 

Varieties — Time,  manner,  rate  and  depth  of  seeding — Seeding  with  other  crops 
— Fertilizers,  tillage  and  rotations — Time  and  method  of  harvesting — Feeding 
value  and  utilization. 

Soy  Beans. 

Varieties — Time,  method,  rate  and  depth  of  seeding — Inoculation,  tillage  and 
fertilizers— Time  and  method  of  harvesting — Composition,  feeding  value  and 
utilization. 

Vetches — Canada  field  peas — Harvesting — Other  annual  legumes — Sorghums — 
Millet — Rape — Catch  crops  for  pasture  and  hay. 

Chapter  12.    ANNUAL  LEGUMES,  GROWN  PRINCIPALLY  FOR  SEEDS..   156 

Field  bean — Time,  rate,  manner  and  depth  of  seeding — Harvesting — Threshing 
and  cleaning — Yield — Field  peas — Cowpeas — Soy  beans — Castor  bean — Vetch 
— Crimson  clover. 

Peanuts. 

Soil  and  climatic  conditions — Fertilizers  and  lime  required — Time,  rate,  depth 
and  manner  of  planting — Seed  selection  and  preparation — Varieties— Cultivation, 
harvesting  and  curing — Preparing  for  market — Yields. 

Chapter  13.    ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  FOR  FORAGE 167 

Relation  to  other  crops — Utilization  and  feeding  value — Sugar  beets — Mangels — 
Turnips  and  rutabagas — Carrots — Parsnip — Cabbage — Kale — Artichokes — Cas- 
sava—-Chuf  a — Taro — Youtia. 

Chapter  14.    THE  POTATO 173 

The  soil — Crop  rotation — Soil  preparation — The  seed — Fertilization — The  plant- 
ing— Cultivation — Diseases — Insect  pests — Harvesting  the  crop. 

Chapter  15.     SUGAR    CROPS    (CANE,   BEET   AND    MAPLE    SUGAR,   AND 

SORGHUM) 180 

Sugar  Beets. 

Adaptation  —  Preparation  of  land  —  Fertilization  —  Seeding  and  cultivation  — 
Harvesting — Seed  production — Manufacture  of  beet  sugar — By-products  of  beet 
farming. 

Cane  Sugar. 

Description  and  mode  of  reproduction — Soils — Varieties  of  cane — Rotation  and 
preparation  of  the  land  —  Fertilizers  —  Cultivation  —  Harvesting  —  Cane  sugar 
manufacture. 
Maple  Sugar — Sugar  making — Sorghum. 


10  CONTENTS 


Chapter  16.     COTTON  PRODUCTION 191 

Species — Characteristics  of  the  plant — Seed — Varieties  of  upland  cotton  grouped 
— Cluster  group — Semi-cluster  group — Peterkin  group — King  group — Big-boll 
group — Long-staple  upland  group — Desired  qualities  of  a  variety— Selection — 
Soils  adapted  to  cotton — Special  types  of  soils. 

Fertilizer  and  Cultivation. 

Plant  food  removed  by  cotton — Need  of  humus — Need  of  nitrogen — Need  of 
phosphoric  acid — Need  of  potash — Commercial  fertilizers  profitable — Three-year 
rotation  suggested — Preparation  of  land — Time  of  plowing — Seed-bed — Planting 
—Tillage. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing. 
Picking — Ginning — Cotton  seed — Storing — Grades  of  cotton. 

Chapter  17.    TOBACCO. . ..." 203 

Types  and  their  commercial  uses — Principal  tobacco  districts — Soils — Prepara- 
tion and  care  of  seed-beds — Preparation  of  the  soil — Fertilizers — Transplanting 
and  cultivation — Methods  of  harvesting — Barn  curing — Preparation  for  market — 
Methods  of  selling. 

Chapter  18.    WEEDS  AND   THEIR  ERADICATION 215 

Damage  done  by  weeds — Weeds  reduce  crop  yields — How  introduced  and  spread 
— Classification  of  weeds — Weed  habitats — Principles  governing  control — Canada 
thistle  —  Quack  grass  —  Foxtail  —  Dodders  —  Buckhorn  —  Plantain  —  Pigweed  — 
Lamb's-Quarters — Wild  mustard  or  charlock — Shepherd's-purse — Peppergrass — 
Cocklebur  —  Field  bindweed  or  wild  morning  glory  —  Hedge  bindweed  —  Fifty 
worst  weeds. 

PART  II.    DISEASES  OF  FARM  CROPS 

Chapter  19.    DISEASES   OF  FARM   CROPS  AND   THEIR  REMEDIES....   239 
Bean.     Anthracnose — Rust — Blight — Downy  mildew — Leaf  spot. 
Pea.     Spot. 

Beets.     Leaf  spot — Root  rot. 

Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  Turnips,  etc.  Black  rot — Club  root  or  finger  and  toe  disease. 
Carrot.  Soft  rot. 

Potato.  Late  blight  or  downy  mildew — Early  blight — Wilt,  stem  rot  and  dry  rot 
— Black  leg — Scab — Little  potato,  rosette,  stem  rot,  scurf — Bacterial  wilt — 
Tipburn. 

Peanut.     Foliage  and  root  diseases. 

Tobacco.     Granville  tobacco  wilt — Mosaic,  calico  or  mottle  top — Leaf  spots — 
Root  rots. 
Corn.    Smut. 

Wheat.     Rusts — Loose  smut — Stinking  smut  or  bunt. 
Oats.     Rust — Smut. 

Sugar  Cane.     Red  rot — Rind  disease — The  pineapple  disease — Other  diseases. 
Cotton.     Anthracnose — Damping  off — Sore  shin — Seeding  rot. 
Flax.    Wilt. 

Chapter  20.    INSECT  PESTS  AND   THEIR   CONTROL , 250 

General  Crop  Insects. 

Caterpillars  (leaf-eating) — Cutworms — Grasshoppers  or  locusts — Leaf  beetles 
Plant  lice — White  grubs — Wire  worms. 

Field  Crop  Insects. 

The  army  worm — The  alfalfa  leaf  weevil — The  chinch  bug — Clover  mite — Clover 
root  borer — Corn  ear  worm — The  corn  root  aphis — Cotton  boll  worm — Cotton 
worm — The  cotton  red  spider — The  fall  army  worm — The  green  bug  or  spring 
grain  aphis — The  Hessian  fly — Mexican  cotton  boll  weevil — Spring  grain  aphis — 
Southern  corn  root  worm  or  bud  worm — Tobacco  flea  beetle — Tobacco  worms  or 
horn  worms — Western  corn  root  worm — Wheat  joint  worm — Wheat  straw  worm. 


CONTENTS  11 


Chapter  21.     INSECTICIDES  AND   FUNGICIDES 264 

Insecticides. 

Paris  green — Arsenate  of  lead — Arsenite  of  zinc — London  purple — White  arsenic — 
Sulphur — Lame-sulphur  wash — Tobacco  extracts — Pyrethrum — White  hellebore — 
Coal  oil — Crude  oils — Soaps — Coal  tar — Borax — Other  insecticides — Bisulphide  of 
carbon — Carbon  tetrachlorid — Para-dichlorobenzene — Hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

Fungicides. 

Copper  sulphate — Bordeaux  mixture — Copperas  or  iron  sulphate — Formalin  or 
formaldehyde — Bichloride  of  mercury — Lime-sulphur  wash. 

Combined  Insecticides  and  Fungicides. 

PART  IH.    TABLES  OF  AGRICULTURAL  STATISTICS  AND 
WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

PAGE 

TABLE      I.  Percentage  composition  of  agricultural  products 279 

TABLE     II.  Fertility  in  farm  produce 283 

TABLE  III.  Weight  per  bushel,  seeding  rate  per  acre,  number  of  seeds  per  pound 

and  depth  to  cover  farm  seed 284 

TABLE    IV.  Water  requirements  of  various  standard  crops 286 

TABLE     V.  Cost  per  acre  producing  crops 287 

TABLE    VI.  Cost  of  farm  horse  power 287 

TABLE  VII.  Weights  and  measures 288 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


TYPES  AND  VARIETIES  OP  CORN  (Color  Plate) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

VARIATIONS  IN  TIMOTHY 20 

NOTE  THE  VARIATION  IN  THE  SECOND  GENERATION  HYBRIDS  (Wheat) 21 

THE  EAR-TO-ROW  TEST  PLAT  WITH  CORN  HUSKED 28 

VARIATIONS  IN  YIELD  OF  POTATOES  FROM  SELECTED  TUBERS 26 

DANGERS  OF  CONTINUOUS  CROPPING 29 

THE  HEIGHT  OF  STALKS  AND  POSITIONS  OF  EARS  (Corn) 38 

CORN  ACREAGE  BY  STATES 41 

CORN  YIELD  FOLLOWS  THE  AMOUNT  OF  RAINFALL  (Chart) 42 

TIME  AND  METHOD  OF  PLANTING  CORN 45, 46, 47 

RIGHT  AND  WRONG  WAY  OF  CULTIVATING  CORN 49 

SEVERAL  FORMS  OF  HUSKING  PEGS 50 

HIGH  AND  Low  EARS 55 

GOOD  AND  POOR  TYPES  OF  KERNELS 56 

A  GOOD  GERMINATION  Box  SEVEN  DAYS  AFTER  PLANTING 57 

EFFECT  OF  TIME  OF  PREPARING  SEED  BED 61 

APPROXIMATE  DATE  OF  SEEDING  WINTER  WHEAT  (Map) 63 

WHEAT  DISTRICTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  (Map) 66 

A  PROFITABLE  YIELD  OF  WHEAT 67 

MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  SHOWING  APPROXIMATELY  THE  AREAS  TO  WHICH 

CERTAIN  TYPES  OF  OATS  ARE  ADAPTED 73 

Two  TYPES  OF  OAT  HEADS 74 

A  FIELD  OF  GOOD  OATS  BEING  HARVESTED  WITH  A  MODERN  SELF-BINDER  ....  77 

A  FIELD  OF  WINTER  BARLEY  SEEDED  AFTER  CORN 80 

A  FIELD  OF  FLAX  IN  BLOOM 86 

HEADS  OF  FOUR  VARIETIES  OF  KAFFIR 88 

EMMER 89 

MAP  SHOWING  REGION  OF  GRASS  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (Map) ...  93 

SIDE  DELIVERY  RAKE 95 

COMBINED  SWEEP  RAKE  AND  STACKER 96 

A  FIELD  OF  GOOD  GRASS  (Timothy) 97 

THE  HAY  LOADER  IN  OPERATION 98 

Rows  OF  TIMOTHY 99 

FIELD  OF  TIMOTHY  PLANTS  FOR  SELECTION 101 

VARIATIONS  IN  TIMOTHY 102 

SUDAN  GRASS,  A  NEW  ACQUISITION 107 

A  CLOVER  FIELD  IN  BLOSSOM 1 10 

MAP  SHOWING  THE  ACREAGE  OF  RED  CLOVER  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA.  112 

A  CLOVER  BUNCHER  ATTACHED  TO  A  MOWING  MACHINE 116 

RED  CLOVER  ON  LIMED  AND  UNLIMED  LAND 117 

(13) 


14  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

PASTURING  SWEET  CLOVER  IN  KANSAS 119 

MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA,  SHOWING  ACREAGE  OF  ALFALFA.  . .   121 

ALFALFA  OUT-YIELDS  OTHER  HAY  CROPS 124 

A  STANDING  FIELD  OF  ALFALFA 126 

CURING  ALFALFA  HAY  IN  SHOCKS 128 

COMPARISON  OF  HOGS  FED  ON  CORN  AND  ON  ALFALFA 129 

A  WELL-SET  CLUSTER  OF  ALFALFA  PODS 131 

SHEEP  PASTURING  ON  HILLY  LAND  (Color  Plate} 132 

LIVE  STOCK  ON  PASTURE 133 

HAY  MAKING  SCENE  (Millet) : 138 

GOOD  PASTURE  LAND 141 

FIELD  OF  IRON  COWPEAS  PLANTED  IN  ONE-FIFTH  Rows  AND  CULTIVATED  THREE 

TIMES 145 

HAIRY  VETCH  AND  RYE  GROWING  TOGETHER 150 

MILLET  MAKES  AN  EXCELLENT  CATCH  CROP 152 

MAKING  HOGS  OF  THEMSELVES 154 

HARVESTING  FIELD  BEANS  WITH  A  HARVESTER 1 57 

SOY  BEANS 159 

CRIMSON  CLOVER 160 

A  PEANUT  PLANT 162 

HARVESTING  AND  CURING  PEANUTS 165 

ROOT  CROPS  (Map) 167 

A  LOAD  OF  MANGELS 168 

CROSS  SECTION  OF  AN  EASILY  CONSTRUCTED  PIT  FOR  ROOTS 170 

THE  POTATO  CROP 173 

THE  CONDITION  OF  SEED  POTATOES  DEPENDS  ON  CHARACTER  OF  STORAGE 176 

A  POTATO  PLANTER 177 

AGRICULTURAL  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  GERMANY  (Chart) 181 

SUGAR  BEET 182 

A  GOOD  STAND  AND  VIGOROUS  GROWTH  OF  SUGAR  BEETS 184 

A  FIELD  OF  SUGAR  CANE 188 

A  GOOD  COTTON  PLANT,  SHOWING  GOOD  BASE  LIMBS 192 

COTTON  GROWN  BY  SINGLE  STALK  METHOD 195 

TURNING  UNDER  CRIMSON  CLOVER  FOR  COTTON 198 

A  FIELD  OF  COTTON 200 

FIELD  OF  VIRGINIA  HEAVY  TOBACCO 204 

FIELD  OF  CIGAR  LEAF  TOBACCO 205 

TOBACCO  PLANT-BED 206 

A  PLANT  READY  TO  SET  IN  FIELD 210 

FIRE-CURING  BARN 212 

FLUE-CURING  BARN 213 

THE  MANNER  IN  WHICH  CANADA  THISTLES  SPREAD  BY  UNDERGROUND  ROOT- 
STOCKS 218 

THE  CANADA  THISTLE 220 

GREEN  FOXTAIL 221 

QUACK  GRASS 221 

FIELD  DODDER 222 

FLAX  DODDER,  ,  222 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  15 

PAGE 

ALFALFA  DODDER 222 

BUCKHORN  OR  NARROW-LEAVED  PLANTAIN 223 

COMMON  OR  BROAD-LEAVED  PLANTAIN 224 

PIGWEED 225 

LAMB'S  QUARTERS  OR  SMOOTH  PIGWEED 226 

WILD  MUSTARD 227 

SHEPHERD'S  PURSE 228 

COCKLEBUR 230 

FIELD  BINDWEED 231 

ANTHRACNOSE  OF  BEAN 240 

ENLARGED  ROOTS  OF  CABBAGE  CAUSED  BY  NEMATODES 242 

SMUT  OF  CORN 245 

LOOSE  SMUT  OF  WHEAT. 246 

SMUT  OF  OATS 247 

YOUNG  COTTON  PLANT  AFFECTED  BY  COTTON  WILT 248 

CHINCH  BUG 253 

THE  CLOVER  MITE 254 

CLOVER  ROOT  BORER 255 

THE  COTTON  WORM 256 

FALL  ARMY  WORM 257 

HESSIAN  FLY 257 

GREEN  BUG  OR  SPRING  GRAIN  APHIS 258 

SOUTHERN  CORN  ROOT  WORM 259 

COTTON  BOLL  WEEVIL 259 

TOBACCO  FLEA  BEETLE 259 

SOUTHERN  TOBACCO  HORN  WORM 260 

WESTERN  CORN  ROOT  WORM 261 

WHEAT  JOINT  WORM 261 

LARVA  OF  ISOSOMA  GRANDE  IN  WHEAT  STRAW 262 

A  LIME  SULPHUR  COOKING  OUTFIT 267 

MAKING  PREPARATIONS  TO  FUMIGATE  WITH  HYDROCYANIC  GAS 271 

FUMIGATING  WITH  HYDROCYANIC  GAS 272 

EFFICIENCY  OF  BORDEAUX  MIXTURE  ON  POTATOES 274 

TREATING  GRAIN  WITH  FORMALIN  FOR  SMUT,,.  .  275 


PART  I 
FARM  CROPS 


(17) 


CHAPTER  9 

CROP  IMPROVEMENT 

BY  C.  F.  NOLL 
Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Pennsylvania  State  College 

The  development  of  varieties  and  strains  of  our  farm  crops  which 
have  great  productiveness  or  superior  merit  in  other  respects  is  a  matter 
of  great  interest  to  all  agriculturists.  Increase  in  yield  due  to  natural 
productiveness  of  a  variety  results  in  a  gain  which  is  maintained  year 
after  year  without  additional  cost  of  fertilizer  or  expense  in  culture. 
Such  gains  are  of  much  economic  importance,  as  shown  by  the  differences 
secured  in  many  variety  tests.  At  the  Pennsylvania  State  College  Experi- 
ment Station,  where  varieties  of  various  crops  are  tested  under  the  same 
conditions  there  are  some  which  outyield  others  by  as  much  as  fifty  per 
cent.  Here  the  good  yielding  varieties  are  grown  with  just  the  same 
expense  as  the  poor  ones,  except  for  the  slight  additional  cost  of  handling 
the  increase  in  crop.  Similar  results  have  been  secured  at  experiment 
stations  in  nearly  every  state.  . 

Plant   Selection.— Crop   improvement   or   plant   breeding   is   oi 
looked  upon  as  a  new  thing,  but  ever  since  man  has  been  growing  plants, 
they  have  gradually  been  modified  by  seed  selection.     All  of  our  culti- 
vated plants  come  from  wild  forms,  but  some  of  them  have  been  so  changed 
that  they  could  not  now  perpetuate  their  race  if  left  to  shift  for  then 
selves      Within  the  memory  of  men  now  living,  the  fruits  of  tomatoes 
have  been  developed  from  the  size  of  a  walnut  to  several  times  as  large, 
and  other  changes  have  been  effected  which  have  made  them  more  desir- 
able for  table  use.     Though  plant  improvement  has  been  thus  going  on 
for  ages,  only  within  the  past  few  decades  has  there  been  great  genera 
interest  in  this  work,  and  only  of  late  have  some  of  the  fundamental 
principles  been  understood.  . 

Man  originates  to  a  very  limited  extent  desirable  changes  in  the 
plants  with  which  he  works.  He  is  dependent  chiefly  upon  changes 
which  occur  naturally,  and  all  that  he  does  is  to  take  advantage  of  these 
changes  and  perpetuate  the  forms  which  are  the  most  suitable  for  his 
purpose.  He  cannot,  for  example,  make  the  pole  lima  beans  over  into 
the  dwarf  form,  but  when  dwarf  plants  are  found  in  a  field  of  lima  beans 
he  can  save  seed  of  these  plants  and  perpetuate  and  multiply  a  rac< 

dwarf  lima  beans. 

Kinds  of  Variation.— No  two  plants  are  exactly  alike,  but  most  ol 
the  variations  are  of  no  significance  to  the  plant  breeder.     They  may  be 

19 


20 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


due  to  differences  of  environment,  and  in  this  case  will  not  be  inherited. 
If  a  hill  of  corn  is  heavily  manured,  the  stalks  and  ears  will  be  larger 
than  where  manure  is  withheld,  but  seed  from  these  favored  hills  is  not 
necessarily  any  better  than  seed  from  plants  not  so  well  fertilized.  How- 
ever, variations  may  arise  which  are  hereditary  and  which  may  be  the 
beginning  of  new  varieties.  When  the  variations  are  in  the  yield  or  size 
of  plant,  usually  one  cannot  distinguish  the  difference  between  the  varia- 
tions which  are  hereditary  and  those  which  are  not,  except  by  a  study  of 
the  progeny  of  the  plants.  When  the  variations  are  in  color  or  form, 


VARIATIONS  IN  TiMOTHY.1 


one  may  have  less  difficulty  in  picking  out  those  which  could  be  used  to 
develop  new  strains  or  varieties. 

Hybridization. — Hybridization  means  the  crossing  of  plants  of  dif- 
ferent species  or  different  varieties.  It  is  accomplished  by  taking  the 
pollen  from  a  flower  of  one  of  the  plants  to  be  crossed  and  placing  it  on 
the  pistil  of  a  flower  of  the  other.  Care  must  always  be  exercised  to  pre- 
vent the  plant-producing  seed  from  being  fertilized  with  its  own  pollen 
or  with  foreign  pollen  carried  by  the  wind  or  by  insects. 

While  there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  mystery  to  many  in  regard  to 
the  crossing  of  plants  and  a  disposition  to  regard  hybrids  as  of  superior 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "Plant  Breeding,"  by  Bailey. 


CROP    IMPROVEMENT  21 

merit,  the  cross-fertilization  is  usually  easily  accomplished,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  varieties  produced  by  crossing  are  not  necessarily  of  supe- 
rior merit.  Crossing  of  plants  for  the  most  part  results  in  new  com- 
binations of  parental  characters.  By  crossing  a  yellow  pear  tomato  and  a 
large  red  one,  one  could  produce  a  red  pear  tomato  and  a  large  yellow  one. 
If  a  variety  of  wheat  with  bearded  heads  and  white  grains  is  crossed  with  a 
variety  with  smooth  heads  and  red  grains,  there  could  be  produced  a  bearded 
wheat  with  red  grains  and  a  smooth  wheat  with  white  grains.  By  selection 
and  propagation  the  characters  become  fixed  and  give  new  varieties. 


RESULTS  OT  CROSSING  WHEAT 


NOTE  THE  VARIATION  IN  THE  SECOND  GENERATION  HYBRIDS.1 

Choice  of  Varieties. — In  attempting  to  improve  a  crop  one  should 
first  endeavor  to  secure  a  first-class  variety.  Because  of  the  great  dif- 
ference in  varieties,  if  the  poorer  yielding  ones  were  chosen  and  an 
attempt  were  made  to  improve  them  in  productiveness,  it  is  not  likely 
that  they  could  be  made  better  than  varieties  already  in  existence. 

Variety  testing  is  a  rather  simple  matter,  but  some  precautions  must 
be  observed  if  the  results  are  to  be  dependable.  The  main  considerations 
are  as  follows: 

1.  The  varieties  should  be  tested  on  as  uniform  soil  as  possible  of 
the  kind  on  which  the  field  crops  are  to  be  grown. 

1  Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


22  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

2.  The  plats  should  be  long  and  narrow  rather  than  short  and  broad, 

and  should  extend  across  inequalities  in  the  land  rather  than 
parallel  with  them. 

3.  A  known  standard  variety  should  be  planted  in  every  third  or 

fourth  plat  for  comparison. 

4.  Trials  should  be  conducted  for  a  number  of  years  and  the  choice 

of  a  variety  based  upon  the  average  performance  rather  than 

upon  the  results  of  only  one  year. 

Suggestions  are  given  in  this  chapter  for  the  improvement  of  a  few 
crops.  The  methods  of  procedure  with  others  would  be  similar,  depend- 
ing chiefly  upon  how  the  blossoms  are  fertilized  and  upon  methods  of 
propagation. 

CORN 

Special  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  purchase  of  seed-corn.  This 
crop  tends  to  become  adapted  to  local  conditions  and  may  not  do  well 
when  removed  to  different  localities.  Especially  is  there  likely  to  be  -a 
failure  to  mature  when  seed  from  a  locality  having  a  longer  season  is 
bought.  On  the  other  hand,  a  wise  selection  of  seed  should  enable  a 
farmer  to  adapt  his  corn  better  to  his  own  conditions. 

Most  of  our  best  known  varieties  have  thus  been  developed  by  con- 
sistent selection  of  seed  for  a  number  of  years  on  the  same  farm.  The 
well-known  Learning  variety  was  developed  by  J.  S.  Learning  in  Clinton 
County,  Ohio,  by  continuous  selection,  from  a  variety  bought  in  Hamilton 
County,  Ohio,  in  1855.  By  selection  along  the  same  line,  this  variety 
was  made  very  uniform.  Reid's  Yellow  Dent,  a  very  popular  variety  of 
a  well-defined  type,  originated  with  a  cross  between  two  varieties  planted 
in  the  same  field  by  Robert  Reid  in  1846.  The  type  was  fixed  in  this 
case  also  by  continuous  selection.  Most  farmers  could  not  do  better  than 
test  a  number  of  varieties  to  find  a  good  one  and  then  by  careful  selection 
of  seed  try  to  make  it  better. 

The  Ear-Row  Method. — The  most  rapid  improvement  of  corn  is 
accomplished  by  some  ear-row  (or  ear-to-row)  method  of  breeding.  There 
are  a  number  of  methods  in  use  which  vary  in  detail.  By  ear-row  plant- 
ing is  meant  the  planting  of  each  ear  to  be  tested  in  a  row  by  itself  to 
determine  its  productiveness  and  other  desirable  qualities.  The  rows 
should  be  of  such  a  length  that  not  over  half  of  the  seed  on  an  ear  need 
be  planted.  If  the  rows  are  three  and  one-half  feet  apart  and  the  hills 
three  feet  apart,  forty-two  hills  will  comprise  approximately  one  one- 
hundredth  of  an  acre.  Five  or  six  grains  should  be  planted  in  a  hill  and 
when  the  corn  is  up,  it  should  be  thinned  to  three  stalks  per  hill.  Mixed 
seed  of  the  variety  should  be  planted  for  a  check  every  sixth  row.  During 
the  growing  season  the  rows  should  be  observed  and  desirable  or  undesir- 
able characteristics  noted. 

Each  row  should  be  harvested  separately.     Since  the  yield  of  stover 


CROP    IMPROVEMENT 


23 


is  of  only  minor  importance,  it  does  not  matter  whether  the  plants  are 
cut  or  not,  but  they  must  be  husked  separately  and  the  corn  ears  weighed. 
After  the  yields  of  the  ear-rows  have  been  obtained,  any  one  of  a  number 
of  methods  for  continuing  the  work  may  be  followed.  The  simplest  way 
is  to  take  the  remnants  of  the  best  ears  as  shown  by  the  ear-row  test, 
shell  these  together  and  plant  in  an  isolated  seed  plat  the  next  year. 
From  this  plat  the  diseased  and  weak  stalks  should  be  removed  before  the 
pollen  is  shed.  Seed  should  be  saved  from  the  best  rows  in  the  ear-row 
plat  for  field  planting  the  next  year.  The  third  year  there  should  be  an 
ear-row  plat  like  that  of  the  first  year  and  the  ears  for  this  should  come 
from  the  multiplying  plat  grown  the  second  year.  The  seed  of  the  main 
crop  the  third  year  should  come  from  the  multiplying  plat  and  from  the 
part  of  the  field  in  which  the  seed  from  the  ear-rows  was  planted.  This 


THE  EAR-TO-ROW  TEST  PLAT  WITH  CORN  HUSKED,  SHOWING  A  METHOD  USED  IN 
ASCERTAINING  WHICH  SEED  EARS  HAVE  YIELDED  BEST.1 

method  provides  for  an  ear-row  plat  and  a  multiplying  plat  on  alternate 
years. 

Ideals  in  Selection  of  Corn. — Besides  attempting  to  secure  greater 
productiveness  in  a  variety  of  corn,  one  who  wTould  improve  the  crop 
should  seek  to  adapt  the  variety  in  length  of  growing  season  to  the  local- 
ity in  which  it  is  grown.  In  a  general  way  the  best  varieties  are  those 
which  require  about  all  of  the  season  for  development  and  yet  can  be 
depended  upon  to  mature  before  frost. 

The  stalks  should  be  of  medium  size  and  able  to  stand  up  well. 
The  ears  should  be  of  medium  height  from  the  ground,  with  a  rather  short 
shank,  and  should  droop  somewhat  rather  than  stand  erect.  By  con- 
tinuous selection  for  high  and  low  ears  for  five  years  at  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station,  two  strains  were  developed  from  one  variety  with  a 


1  From  Year-Book,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 
11 


24  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

difference  in  height  of  ear  of  over  two  feet.  Here  the  low-eared  strain 
was  the  earlier  and  gave  the  greatest  average  yield.* 

The  ears  should  be  of  good  size,  should  have  medium  size  cobs, 
should  be  fairly  uniform  in  color  and  type  of  kernel  and  should  be  attrac- 
tive in  appearance.  The  so-called  show  points  of  the  ears  are  of  less 
economic  importance  than  was  at  one  time  thought,  but  corn  that  looks 
good  finds  the  best  market  when  sold  for  seed. 

In  the  above  discussion  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  corn  is  grown 
primarily  for  grain.  Ensilage  varieties  should  have  a  rather  large,  leafy 
stalk  besides  a  good  ear,  and  may  be  somewhat  later  in  maturing  than 
varieties  for  grain. 

WHEAT,  OATS  AND  BARLEY 

In  the  case  of  wheat,  oats  and  barley,  variations  frequently  occur 
within  a  variety  which  make  it  worth  while  to  search  for  those  which  are 
better  than  the  parent  variety  and  to  multiply  them  as  new  strains. 

First  Year. — Go  through  the  field  and  select  choice  heads,  taking 
as  many  as  can  be  planted  separately,  remembering  that  really  good 
strains  are  more  likely  to  be  found  in  a  large  number  than  in  a  small 
number. 

Second  Year. — Plant  the  seed  of  these  heads  each  in  a  separate  row. 
Make  the  rows  a  foot  apart  and  plant  the  grains  four  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  The  same  number  of  grains  should  be  planted  from  each  head, 
which  may  be  twenty-five  or  thirty. 

When  ripe,  the  number  of  plants  in  each  row  should  be  determined, 
the  rows  should  be  cut  separately  and  the  yield  of  each  gotten. 

Third  Year. — A  number  of  ounces  of  seed  of  each  strain  should  now 
be  available.  If  100  head-rows  has  been  planted  the  year  before,  about 
twenty  of  the  best  should  be  sown  this  year.  These  should  be  sown 
under  field  conditions  and  the  parent  variety  should  be  sown  for  a  check 
and  put  into  every  third  plat.  A  good  size  of  plat  is  sixteen  feet  long 
and  two  rows  wide,  the  rows  being  eight  inches  apart  and  the  plats  ten 
inches  apart.  These  grains  can  be  planted  thus  side  by  side,  for  they  do 
not  readily  cross-fertilize. 

Fourth  Year. — By  the  fourth  year  there  will  be  enough  seed  for  a 
larger  plat  which  may  be  sown  with  a  grain  drill.  A  good  plan  is  to 
shut  off  the  middle  hoe,  put  in  a  partition  and  sow  at  one  time  two  plats 
of  four  or  five  drill  rows  each,  depending  upon  whether  the  drill  used  has 
nine  hoes  or  eleven.  As  before,  the  parent  variety  should  be  sown  in 
every  third  plat.  Only  the  most  promising  strains  should  be  continued. 

Fifth  and  Succeeding  Years. — If  desired,  the  plats  may  be  made 
larger  than  the  fourth  year,  but  the  arrangement  of  plats  should  be  the 
same.  Only  those  which  are  a  decided  improvement  on  the  parent  variety 
should  be  retained. 


*  Ohio  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No,  282,  Corn  Experiments,  by  C,  G,  Williams  and  F,  A,  Welton. 


CROP    IMPROVEMENT  25 

Crossing  of  Varieties  in  Small  Grain  Breeding. — Different  varieties 
may  be  crossed  for  new  combinations  of  characters  as  discussed  before. 
The  first  generation  from  the  cross  will  look  like  one  parent  in  respect 
to  some  characters  and  like  the  other  parent  in  others.  The  seed  of  each 
plant  should  be  kept  separate  and  planted  like  the  head-rows  in  selection 
work.  Usually  it  will  be  found  that  the  progeny  of  these  parent  plants 
are  not  uniform.  In  that  case  the  grain  from  each  plant  must  be  kept 
separate  and  planted  again  in  separate  rows  as  before  and  this  must  be 
kept  up  until  all  the  plants  from  a  parent  are  alike  in  all  of  their  visible 
characters.  Those  that  are  uniform  should  be  considered  pure  strains, 
and  after  this  the  testing  may  proceed  as  with  selections  from  the  third 
year  on. 

Varieties  of  these  crops  should  be  improved  in  production  first  of 
all,  but  also  in  resistance  to  disease  and  stiffness  of  straw.  In  the  case 
of  wheat,  the  milling  quality  of  the  grain  is  important,  and  in  oats,  from 
the  market  point  of  view,  the  color  of  grain,  white  being  the  preferred 
color. 

Many  of  the  closer  varieties  of  these  crops  owe  their  origin  to  selec- 
tions made  by  farmers  and  some  to  crosses.  Of  the  varieties  of  wheat, 
Fultz  was  originated  by  Abraham  Fultz  in  1862  from  a  selection  from 
Lancaster;  Gold  Coin,  which  was  an  accidental  seedling  variation,  was 
selected  from  Deihl  Mediterranean;  Fulcaster,  the  well-known  red- 
bearded  variety,  resulted  from  a  cross  between  Fultz  and  Lancaster,  made 
by  S.  M.  Schindel,  Hagerstown,  Md. 

POTATOES 

Production  of  Seedlings. — New  varieties  of  potatoes  originate  from 
seedlings.  The  seeds  are  produced  in  the  true  fruits,  which  come  after 
the  blossoms  and  look  like  little  green  tomatoes.  These  fruits  or  balls, 
as  they  are  commonly  called,  are  produced  very  sparingly  and  in  some 
seasons  none  are  seen.  The  seed  should  be  sown  indoors  early  in  the  spring 
and  the  young  potato  plants  handled  like  tomatoes  until  they  are  set  out 
in  the  field.  Transplanting  to  pots  increases  their  vigor.  The  first  year 
few  reach  full  development  and  most  do  not  for  two  or  more  years.  The 
seedlings,  as  a  rule,  are  quite  variable  and  few  if  any  look  just  like  the 
parents.  Each  should  be  regarded  as  a  new  variety  and  given  a  number 
and  kept  separate  as  long  as  grown. 

The  work  is  very  interesting  and  may  give  varieties  better  than  those 
already  on  the  market,  but  most  seedlings  are  of  inferior  merit. 

Hill  and  Tuber  Selection. — Potatoes  vary  in  the  hill  and  it  is  possible 
to  improve  a  variety  by  selection  of  the  best  hills  or  the  best  tubers.  It 
is  a  good  practice  to  dig  by  hand  a  great  many  hills  and  save  seed  of  some 
of  the  best  for  a  seed  plat  the  next  year.  This  seed  plat  should  be  gone 
over  and  weak  and  diseased  his  removed  and  the  remainder  saved  for 


26  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  field  planting.  Greater  progress  will  be  made  by  keeping  the  tubers 
from  selected  hills  separate  and  testing  these  as  new  strains.  Each  should 
have  a  number  by  which  it  will  always  be  known.  The  first  year  ten 
hills  of  each  might  be  planted  in  rows  side  by  side  with  the  parent  variety 
every  third  place.  The  best  only  should  be  saved  and  the  next  and  suc- 
ceeding years  the  plats  may  be  made  larger. 

Tuber  unit  selection  should  start  with  selected  tubers  of  the  same 
size  which  are  desirable  in  appearance  and  free  from  disease.  These  are 
each  cut  into  four  pieces,  which  are  planted  in  succession,  one  tuber  after 


VARIATION  IN  YIELD  OF  POTATOES  FROM  SELECTED 

the  other,  with  some  space  between  the  hills  from  the  different  tubers. 
When  mature,  the  four  hills  from  a  tuber  are  dug  together  and  the  future 
selection  based  upon  the  yield  of  tubers  and  their  appearance.  These 
must  be  designated  by  numbers  as  in  other  selection  work.  The  next 
year  single  row  plats  of  ten  or  more  hills  each  of  the  most  promising  may 
be  planted,  with  the  parent  variety  in  every  third  plat  as  before. 

Potatoes  may  be  improved  in  productiveness,  disease  resistance  and 
quality  of  tubers.     There  is  a  difference  in  susceptibility,  especially  to 

1  Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


CROP    IMPROVEMENT  27 

early  and  late  blight,  and  perhaps  to  other  serious  diseases.  Only  strains 
of  high  market  quality  should  be  perpetuated.  The  tubers  should  be  of 
medium  size,  smooth  in  outline,  flat  oval  or  flat  oblong  in  shape  and  have 
shallow  eyes. 

Where  carefully  conducted,  these  methods  of  selection  have  resulted 
in  the  improvement  of  the  variety. 

Opportunities  in  Crop  Improvement. — There  is  need  in  every  com- 
munity that  at  least  one  farmer  make  a  specialty  of  producing  and  sell- 
ing improved  farm  seeds.  Such  work  is  usually  very  remunerative,  besides 
being  of  value  to  the  whole  neighborhood. 

Testing  of  varieties  and  the  improvement  of  certain  crops  may  be 
made  a  matter  of  community  interest,  especially  where  there  is  some 
farmers'  organization.  There  is  also  the  opportunity  of  forming  clubs  or 
associations  for  crop  improvement,  which  may  be  quite  local  or  state- 
wide, as  in  the  case  of  many  state  crop  improvement  associations  now 
in  existence. 

REFERENCES 

"Genetics."     Walter. 
"Cereals  in  America."     Hunt. 
"Plant  Breeding."     Bailey  and  Gilbert. 
"Fundamentals  of  Plant  Breeding."     Coulter. 
Ontario  Agricultural  College  Bulletin  228.     "Farm  Crops." 

Farmers'  Bulletin  382,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.      "Adulteration  of  Forage  Plant 
Seeds." 


CHAPTER    2 

THE  ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

In  all  of  the  older  agricultural  districts  the  rotation  of  crops  is  recog- 
nized as  an  essential  to  successful  farming.  With  the  prevailing  price  of 
corn,  farmers  on  the  best  lands  in  the  coin-growing  belt  have  found  it 
profitable  to  grow  corn  after  corn  for  a  number  of  years.  In  like  manner, 
on  the  best  wheat  land  in  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas  and  Canada,  wheat 
grown  continuously  has  proven  a  profitable  enterprise.  In  that  region 
farmers  find  no  good  argument  in  favor  of  fencing  their  farms,  construct- 
ing farm  buildings,  feeding  cattle  and  milking  cows,  when  they  can  make 
as  much  money  or  more  by  a  system  of  farming  that  occupies  their  time 
for  a  little  more  than  one-half  the  year  and  allows  them  leisure  during 
the  remainder  of  the  year.  A  single  crop  system,  while  successful  for  a 
time,  however,  will  not  prove  successful  in  the  long  run. 

Successful  farming  calls  not  only  for  the  best  possible  utilization  of 
the  soil  and  the  maintenance  of  its  fertility,  but  also  demands  the  fullest 
possible  utilization  of  the  labor  that  is  to  be  employed.  The  efficiency 
of  the  labor  of  men  and  teams  on  farms  is  measured  largely  by  the  pro- 
portion of  time  for  which  they  are  profitably  employed.  In  nearly  all 
other  enterprises  labor  is  fully  and  continuously  employed.  In  order 
that  farming  may  compete  with  other  enterprises  for  labor,  it  must  be 
likewise  employed  on  the  farm. 

Rotations  Defined. — A  crop  rotation  is  a  succession  of  crops  grown 
on  the  same  land.  A  good  crop  rotation  is  a  systematic  succession  of  the 
three  general  classes  of  farm  crops,  namely,  cultivated  crops,  grain  crops 
and  grass  crops,  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  large  yields  and  provide  pasture 
and  forage  on  the  farm  at  the  least  expense  of  labor  and  soil  fertility. 

The  rotation  is  definite  when  the  crops  recur  in  a  fixed  order,  and  it 
is  a  fixed  rotation  when  they  not  only  recur  in  a  fixed  order,  but  also  at 
regular  intervals.  A  rotation  consisting  of  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  clover 
and  timothy  is  a  definite  one,  regardless  of  whether  the  clover  and  timothy 
remain  for  one,  two  or  three  years,  but  it  becomes  a  fixed  rotation  when 
not  only  the  order  of  the  crops  is  named,  but  the  length  of  time  of  each 
crop  is  also  specified. 

Purpose  of  Rotations. — A  rotation  of  crops  (1)  provides  for  maintain- 
ing the  soil  in  good  tilth;  (2)  supplies  organic  matter  and  nitrogen;  (3) 
prevents  destructive  outbreaks  of  insect  pests;  (4)  reduces  plant  diseases; 
(5)  provides  for  the  economical  destruction  of  weeds;  (6)  maintains  crop 
yields;  (7)  distributes  the  labor  of  men  and  horses;  (8)  saves  labor  in 
cultivation  of  land;  (9)  keeps  the  soil  occupied;  (10)  provides  for  a 

(28) 


THE    ROTATION     OF    CROPS  29 

balanced  removal  of  plant  food;  (11)  systematizes  farming;  and  (12)  may 
control  toxic  substances. 

Maintain  Good  Physical  Condition  of  Soil. — Deep-rooted  plants, 
such  as  alfalfa  and  the  clovers,  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the 
subsoil  as  a  result  of  root  penetration.  The  cultivation  given  to  inter- 
tilled crops,  such  as  corn,  potatoes,  beets  and  the  truck  crops,  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  surface  soil.  Such  frequent  cultivation  may 
tend  to  reduce  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil,  but  this  will  be  largely  over- 
come by  the  stubble  and  roots  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  that  follow  the 
grain  crops. 

Conserve  Organic  Matter  and  Nitrogen. — Extensive  rotation  experi- 
ments at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  show  that  standard  rotations, 


DANGERS  OF  CONTINUOUS  CROPPING.1 

On  the  left  is  corn  growing  on  land  that  has  grown  corn  continuously  for 
19  years.  On  the  right  is  corn  in  a  five-year  rotation.  Both  fields  were 
planted  on  the  same  day  to  the  same  kind  of  corn.  The  yield  on  the  field 
to  the  left  is  27.5  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  field  on  the  right  gives  61.3 
bushels  an  acre.  These  are  the  average  yields  for  ten  years. 

which  include  an  inter-tilled  crop,  small  grains  and  grasses  with  clover, 
all  gave  net  profits.  A  four-years'  rotation  of  millet,  barley,  corn  and  oats 
was  no  better  than  four  years  of  continuous  growing  of  wheat.  All  of 
these  are  classified  as  exhaustive  crops.  They  cause  a  reduction  in  both 
the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  supply  of  the  soil.  Land  cropped 
continuously  to  wheat,  corn,  potatoes  or  mangels  for  a  period  of  ten  years, 
showed  a  loss  of  1100  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  20,000  pounds  of  carbon 
per  acre.  In  twelve  standard  rotations  covering  the  same  period  of  time, 
there  was  a  gain  of  300  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre,  while  the  carbon  and 
humus  in  the  soil  was  maintained  and  in  some  cases  increased.  In  the 
standard  rotations  eight  tons  of  manure  per  acre  were  applied  once  during 
the  rotation. 

Provide   for  Extermination  of  Weeds. — Noxious  weeds  often  cause 
a  serious  loss  in  farming.     Weeds  not  only  rob  the  crops  of  plant  food  and 

i  From  "Farm  Management"  by  Boss.    Courtesy  of  Lyons  and  Carnahan,  Chicago. 


30  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

moisture,  thus  reducing  the  yield  and  sometimes  causing  absolute  failure, 
but  they  entail  additional  labor  in  the  process  of  cultivation.  Many 
weeds  grow  best  in  certain  kinds  of  crops.  For  example,  mustard  is  a 
common  weed  in  the  small  grain  crops  in  the  prairie  states.  The  seeds 
ripen  a  little  earlier  than  the  grain,  and  in  the  process  of  harvesting  are 
freely  shattered  and  seed  the  land  for  the  succeeding  year.  Where  small 
grain  is  grown  continuously  this  weed  becomes  a  serious  pest.  Its 
extermination  calls  for  an  inter-tilled  crop  following  the  small  grain. 
Pigweed,  bindweed,  foxtail  and  crab-grass  are  common  in  corn  and 
potato  fields,  but  they  seldom  become  serious  in  small  grain  fields  or  in 
grass  land;  consequently,  cultivated  crops  followed  by  grasses  and  small 
grains  make  for  extermination  of  these  weeds.  Daisies,  wild  carrot  and 
buckhorn  are  common  weeds  in  hay  fields,  and  generally  grow  worse  the 
longer  the  land  remains  in  hay.  Such  weeds,  however,  give  no  trouble 
in  cultivated  fields  devoted  to  corn,  potatoes,  etc.,  and  the  cultivation 
helps  to  exterminate  them. 

Lessen  Insect  Depredations. — Most  insect  pests  live  upon  some 
particular  crop  or  a  few  closely  related  crops.  A  crop  or  related  crops, 
grown  continuously  on  the  same  land,  affords  an  opportunity  for  the 
associated  insects  to  multiply  and  become  very  numerous.  The  remedy 
is  to  plant  the  infested  fields  with  a  crop  which  will  not  be  injured  by  the 
pest  in  question.  Unless  these  insects  have  the  power  of  migration  they 
will  perish  for  the  want  of  suitable  food  or  for  lack  of  conditions  suitable 
for  multiplication. 

However  efficient  the  rotation  of  crops  may  be  in  the  extermination 
of  insects,  some  rotations  may  prove  not  only  ineffective  but  actually 
disastrous.  For  example,  land  that  has  been  long  in  grass  sometimes 
becomes  so  infested  with  wire-worms  as  to  cause  a  practical  failure  when 
devoted  to  corn.  Grass  affords  conditions  favorable  to  the  multiplication 
of  wire-worms,  and  they  may  live  in  the  soil  sufficiently  long  after  the 
grass  is[  plowed  up  to  destroy  a  crop  of  corn  which  follows.  Under  such 
conditions  fall  plowing  or  bare  fallow  should  precede  the  planting  of  the 
corn.  The  bill  bug  breeds  freely  in  the  bulbous  roots  of  timothy,  and 
when  timothy  sod  is  plowed  late  in  the  spring  and  planted  to  corn,  this 
insect  transfers  its  attention  to  the  corn  with  disastrous  results.  Such 
trouble  may  be  avoided  by  destroying  the  existing  vegetation  some  time 
in  advance  of  planting  the  corn.  The  insect  under  such  conditions  will 
either  be  starved  or  forced  to  leave  the  field  before  it  is  planted  to  corn. 

Cutworms  are  a  great  menace  to  newly  planted  tobacco  and  many 
other  crops,  but  their  presence  depends  largely  on  the  preceding  crop. 
Cutworms  multiply  extensively  only  in  grass  land  where  the  eggs  are  laid 
by  the  moths.  Many  similar  examples  could  be  cited,  and  success  in 
preventing  insect  depredation  by  crop  rotation  calls  for  a  knowledge  of 
the  life  history  and  habits  of  the  insect  pest  concerned.  (See  Chapter 
76:  "Insect  Pests  and  Their  Control.") 


THE    ROTATION    OF    CROPS  31 

Reduce  Plant  Diseases. — Plant  diseases,  like  insect  pests,  are  gen- 
erally restricted  to  a  particular  crop  or  small  group  of  closely  related 
crops.  The  potato  scab,  so  far  as  is  known,  is  confined  solely  to  potatoes. 
Its  presence  in  the  soil  prevents  the  continuous  growing  of  potatoes,  and 
calls  for  a  rotation  in  which  the  interval  between  successive  potato  crops 
is  sufficiently  long  to  provide  for  the  disappearance  of  the  disease.  In  a 
similar  manner  flax  wilt  or  cotton  wilt  demands  a  rotation  of  crops  in 
order  to  prevent  the  disease  becoming  disastrous.  Bacterial  diseases  of 
tomatoes,  potatoes,  eggplants,  cabbage  and  numerous  other  vegetables, 
the  rusts  and  smuts  of  small  grains,  and  many  other  diseases  accumulate 
in  the  soil  under  the  one-crop  system.  These  troubles  can  be  largely 
avoided  and  the  crop-producing  power  of  the  soil  maintained  by  intelli- 
gent systems  of  rotation.  The  most  profitable  system  for  any  locality  or 
type  of  farming  can  generally  be  ascertained  from  the  state  experiment 
station. 

Improve  Environment  of  Crop. — Aside  from  insect  pest,  plant  diseases 
and  weeds  which  flourish  under  the  one-crop  system  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  crop,  there  is  another  factor  inimical  to  best  plant  growth.  This 
consists  of  excreta  given  off  by  the  roots  of  plants  that  accumulate  in  the 
soil  to  their  detriment.  As  a  rule,  such  excreta  are  not  equally  injurious 
to  a  different  class  of  crops,  and  a  rotation,  therefore,  lessens  the  injury. 
The  excreted  substances  are  organic  in  nature  and  are  either  changed  in 
character  or  entirely  disappear  with  time,  so  that  the  crop  giving  rise  to 
them  may  be  returned  to  the  land  after  a  year  or  more  without  injury. 

Rotations  Insure  Returns. — The  old  adage,  "Don't  place  all  your 
eggs  in  one  basket,'7  applies  with  equal  force  in  the  production  of  crops. 
Unfavorable  conditions  in  any  locality  are  seldom  such  as  to  cause  a  failure 
of  all  kinds  of  crops,  although  a  complete  failure  of  a  particular  crop  in 
a  certain  locality  is  not  uncommon.  A  rotation  of  crops  which  includes 
a  variety  of  crops,  therefore,  avoids  complete  failure. 

Prevent  Reduced  Crop  Yields. — The  tillage  given  to  a  cultivated 
crop,  such  as  corn  or  potatoes,  increases  the  yield  of  the  crop  that  follows 
by  providing  a  better  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  In  like  manner 
legumes  leave  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  in  the  soil  which  is  utilized  to 
the  advantage  of  corn  or  potatoes  which  may  follow.  The  cultivation 
given  crops  destroys  weeds  to  the  advantage  of  crops  which  follow,  and 
which  do  not  receive  cultivation. 

Rotations  Systematize  Fanning. — A  well-planned  rotation  of  crops 
enables  the  farmer  to  know  definitely  what  is  to  be  done  each  year,  and 
makes  possible  an  estimation  of  the  general  expenses  and  returns  that 
may  be  expected.  It  also  enables  him  to  plan  his  work  and  secure  his 
materials,  such  as  seed,  fertilizers,  etc.,  in  advance  of  the  time  they  are 
needed. 

Rotations  Distribute  Labor. — A  good  rotation  of  crops  will  enable 
the  farmer  to  do  a  larger  proportion  of  his  own  work  than  would  be  possible 


32  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

if  the  land  were  devoted  to  one  crop.  This  enables  him  to  utilize  his 
own  labor  to  the  fullest  possible  advantage,  and  to  reduce  the  expense 
necessary  for  hired  labor.  It  is  important,  therefore,  in  selecting  crops 
for  a  rotation,  to  select  those  that  will  compete  with  each  other  for  the 
labor  of  men  and  teams  as  little  as  possible.  The  common  rotation  of 
corn,  oats,  wheat  and  hay  fulfils  these  requirements  fairly  well.  To 
illustrate,  the  preparation  of  land  and  seeding  of  oats  take  place  in  the 
early  spring.  Between  the  seeding  time  of  oats  and  the  time  for  planting 
corn  there  is  sufficient  time  to  prepare  the  land  for  the  latter  crop.  The 
cultivation  of  corn  will  precede  the  harvest  of  hay  and  oats.  The  prep- 
aration of  land  for  winter  wheat  will  take  place  after  the  harvest  period 
and  prior  to  the  harvest  of  corn.  This  fully  occupies  the  time  of  the 
farmer  during  the  growing  season.  There  will  sometimes  be  conflict 
between  the  harvest  of  wheat  and  hay,  and  the  cultivation  of  corn,  necessi- 
tating a  little  extra  labor  at  that  time. 

Essentials  of  a  Good  Rotation. — A  good  crop  rotation  should  contain 
(1)  an  inter-tilled  crop,  (2)  a  cash  crop,  (3)  crops  to  feed,  and  (4)  a  crop 
to  supply  humus  and  nitrogen.  All  crops  may  be  roughly  classified 
under  three  heads,  namely:  exhaustive,  intermediate  and  restorative. 
All  crops,  when  harvested,  remove  from  the  land  more  or  less  plant  food, 
and  in  this  sense  they  are  exhaustive.  No  crop  restores  to  the  soil  any 
considerable  amount  of  plant  food  unless  it  is  plowed  under  or  allowred 
to  decay  on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Notwithstanding  these  facts,  certain 
crops  leave  land  in  poorer  condition  for  subsequent  crops  than  it  was 
before.  These  are  designated  as  exhaustive  crops,  and  include  wheat, 
oats,  rye,  barley  and  millet.  Their  ill  effect  upon  subsequent  crops  may 
be  due  to  any  one  or  a  combination  of  a  number  of  factors,  among  which 
are  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  injurious  insects,  plant  diseases,  reduc- 
tion of  soil  moisture  and  a  failure  to  supply  either  organic  matter  or  nitro- 
gen in  any  appreciable  quantity. 

It  is  wise,  therefore,  to  select  as  many  restorative  crops  as  possible 
and  so  arrange  the  crops  that  these  will  be  followed  by  the  exhaustive 
crops.  These  two  classes  of  crops  should  alternate  as  far  as  possible. 
In  conjunction  with  this,  one  should  select  crops  that  will  yield  well 
and  for  which  there  is  a  demand,  either  for  feeding  on  the  farm  or  as  a 
cash  crop.  The  best  varieties  of  the  crops  entering  into  the  rotation 
should  always  be  used.  These  will  be  determined  largely  by  local  con- 
ditions. 

Sequence  of  Crops. — It  is  a  good  plan  to  follow  a  crop  with  a  long 
growing  season  by  one  having  a  short  growing  season.  This  is  typified 
when  corn  is  followed  by  oats.  In  turn  oats  or  barley  is  removed  from 
the  land  in  ample  time  for  seeding  winter  wheat,  which  occupies  the  land 
for  a  rather  long  period.  In  this  connection  it  is  wise  to  provide  in  the 
rotation  a  place  where  manure  may  be  hauled  directly  from  stables  and 
barnyards  and  applied  to  the  fields.  Where  there  is  an  abundance  of 


THE    ROTATION    OF    CROPS  33 

manure  and  corn  is  extensively  and  advantageously  used  as  feed  for  live- 
stock, corn  may  be  grown  two  years  in  succession,  especially  when  the 
soil  is  fertile  and  manure  is  available  for  both  the  first  and  second  crops. 
It  is  desirable  that  crops  be  arranged  hi  such  a  way  that  the  improving 
effects  of  each  crop  shall  be  regularly  received  and  the  ill  effects  of  the 
exhaustive  crops  be  systematically  neutralized  by  the  crop  that  follows. 

Length  of  Rotations. — The  length  of  crop  rotations  will  be  deter- 
mined by  local  conditions  and  the  character  of  crops  grown,  together 
with  the  value  of  land  and  cost  of  labor.  Crops  that  are  costly  to  estab- 
lish, such  as  alfalfa,  should  occupy  the  land  for  two  or  more  years  in  order 
to  minimize  the  annual  cost  of  production.  The  length  of  time  that  a 
crop  remains  productive  is  also  a  factor.  The  annual  cost  of  seed  and 
the  preparation  of  the  land  for  the  crop  is  one-half  or  one-third  as  much 
if  the  crop  is  continued  for  two  or  three  years  respectively,  as  it  is  if 
allowed  to  remain  only  one  year.  So  long  as  the  yield  is  satisfactory, 
it  generally  pays  to  continue  the  crop.  This  tends  toward  a  longer  crop 
rotation. 

In  many  localities  where  general  farm  crops  prevail,  a  seven-year 
rotation  is  common,  such  for  example  as  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  mixed 
clover  and  timothy  for  four  years.  Such  long  rotations  with  only  one 
legume  in  them  do  not  make  for  increased  soil  fertility,  unless  all  the 
crops  produced  are  fed  upon  the  farm  and  the  manure  returned  to  the 
fields.  Where  cash  crops  dominate  the  type  of  farming,  short  rotations 
may  be  better.  A  rotation  of  corn,  wheat  and  clover  or  of  potatoes, 
wheat  and  clover  affords  the  maximum  of  cash  crops,  while  the  frequency 
of  clover  in  the  rotation  tends  to  maintain  the  nitrogen  supply  of  the  soil. 
Such  short  rotations  also  maintain  the  soil  in  good  tilth  as  a  result  of  the 
frequent  plowing  and  abundant  tillage. 

What  Crops  to  Grow. — The  crops  to  be  grown  in  a  rotation  will  be 
determined  by  a  number  of  factors,  as  soil  adaptation,  length  of  growing 
season,  market  demands,  transportation  facilities,  and  the  system  of 
farming  that  prevails.  Aside  from  these  facts  there  is  another  considera- 
tion that  must  not  be  overlooked.  Usually  it  is  unwise  to  follow  a  crop 
like  tobacco,  which  is  considered  a  gross  feeder,  with  another  crop  such 
as  corn  having  similar  feeding  habits.  Such  a  practice  is  permissible 
only  on  very  fertile  soil  or  where  the  quality  of  the  following  crops  is  to  be 
influenced  through  reduction  in  organic  matter  or  available  plant  food. 
For  example,  coarseness  in  tobacco  might  be  reduced  by  having  it  pre- 
ceded by  corn. 

When  to  Apply  Manure  and  Fertilizers. — It  is  generally  advisable 
to  apply  barnyard  manure  to  those  crops  in  the  rotation  that  have  a  long 
growing  season  or  a  high  money  value,  or  to  those  that  are  considered 
gross  feeders,  such  as  corn.  In  the  absence  of  manure,  the  same  rule 
will  apply  in  the  applications  of  commercial  fertilizers.  When  manure  is 
supplemented  with  fertilizers,  the  fertilizers  are  best  adapted  to  crops  of 


34 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


short  growing  season  or  to  those  influenced  in  quality  by  the  character 
or  form  of  a  particular  fertilizer  ingredient.  In  this  connection  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  legumes  require  only  mineral  fertilizers  and  that 
crops  that  demand  much  nitrogen  should  follow  the  legumes. 

Some  Suggested  Rotations. — Crops  should  naturally  follow  each 
other  in  such  a  way  that  each  crop  paves  the  way  for  the  one  that  is  to 
follow.  Best  results  will  be  secured  when  plants  are  not  compelled  to  do 
their  part  at  a  disadvantage.  Wherever  feasible,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
product  of  a  rotation  should  be  food  for  livestock.  This  provides  for  the 
maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 

In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  a  rotation  of  corn, 
oats,  wheat  and  hay  with  various  modifications  dominates  most  of  the 
general  and  livestock  types  of  farming.  By  omitting  oats  a  three-crop 
rotation  results,  which,  if  restricted  to  three  years  in  length,  makes  for 
soil  fertility,  provides  a  cash  crop  and  at  the  same  time  furnished  an  abun- 
dance of  livestock  food  and  bedding.  This  may  be  supplemented  with 
alfalfa,  thus  increasing  the  protein  supply.  On  soils  poorly  adapted  to 
wheat  this  crop  may  be  omitted  and  oats  will  take  its  place.  In  the  north- 
ernmost latitudes  and  at  higher  elevations  the  acreage  of  corn  will  be 
reduced  and  that  of  oats  and  hay  increased.  Where  markets  are  favor- 
able and  the  soil  is  adapted  to  potatoes,  this  crop  may  be  substituted  for  a 
portion  of  the  corn,  thus  increasing  the  cash  crops  at  the  expense  of  forage. 

Wheat  generally  proves  a  better  crop  in  which  to  seed  clover  and  the 
grasses  than  does  oats.  In  most  parts  of  this  section  of  the  country  the 
grasses  are  seeded  in  the  autumn  and  the  clover  seeded  early  in  the  spring. 
Further  south,  both  clover  and  the  grasses  may  be  seeded  in  the  autumn. 
The  four  staple  crops  above  mentioned  may  be  arranged  into  several 
rotations  with  manure  and  fertilizers  applied  as  suggested  in  the  following 
tabulation. 

METHOD  OF  FERTILIZING  CROP  ROTATIONS.* 


3  Years. 

4  Years. 

5  Years. 

7  Years. 

Per  Acre. 

1 

Corn:  6  to  10  loads  of  manure  and  25  Ibs.  of  phos- 

phoric acid. 

1 

1 

1 

2 

Corn:  6  to  10  loads  of  manure  and  25  Ibs.  of  phos- 

phoric acid. 

2 

2 

3 

Oats:  no  fertilizer. 

2 

3 

3 

4 

Wheat:    50  Ibs.  each  of  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 

ash. 

3 

4 

4 

5 

Clover  and  timothy:  no  fertilizer. 

5 

6 

Timothy:  25  Ibs.  each  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 

and  potash. 

. 

.  . 

7 

Timothy:  25  Ibs.  each  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 

and  potash. 

*  Roughly  speaking,  25  pounds  each  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  may  be  obtained  by 
buying  150  pounds  nitrate  of  soda,  175  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  50  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash. 
The  cost  of  the  ingredients  may  be  estimated  from  the  following  prices  per  pound,  which  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  circumstances:  nitrogen,  18  cents;  phosphoric  acid,  4  cents;  and  potash,  5  cents. 


THE    ROTATION    OF    CROPS  35 

In  the  trucking  regions  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  two  crops  may  frequently  be  secured  in  one  season.  Over  much 
of  this  region  tomatoes  may  be  set  as  late  as  June  1st.  This  gives  oppor- 
tunity to  grow  a  quick-maturing  crop  before  the  land  is  needed  for  tomatoes. 
If  hay  is  needed  crimson  clover  may  be  seeded  in  the  fall  and  cut  for  hay 
the  next  spring,  before  the  land  is  needed  for  tomatoes.  Where  canneries 
are  available,  early  peas  may  be  harvested  before  tune  to  set  tomatoes. 
This  gives  two  crops  in  one  season,  both  of  which  provide  for  the  opera- 
tion of  the  cannery  and  prolong  its  season  of  activity.  Crimson  clover 
may  be  seeded  in  the  tomatoes  at  the  last  cultivation,  and  growth  turned 
under  the  following  spring  for  the  benefit  of  a  succeeding  crop. 

In  this  district  a  two-year  rotation  in  which  four  crops  are  grown  is 
found  to  be  quite  successful.  Two  of  these  are  cash  crops  and  two  are 
renovating  crops.  The  cash  crops  are  corn  and  either  potatoes  or  toma- 
toes. The  renovating  crops  are  crimson  clover  or  soy  beans  or  winter 
rye  mixed  with  winter  vetch.  This  makes  the  purchase  of  nitrogen  in 
fertilizers  unnecessary.  Acid  phosphate  and  potash  are  applied  in  moder- 
ate quantities  and  generally  to  the  cash  crops  only.  This  system,  without 
any  manure  and  with  the  occasional  use  of  lime,  maintains  the  fertility 
of  the  soil. 

In  portions  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  a  three-year  rotation  of  corn,  wheat 
and  clover  is  common.  One  strong  point  in  this  rotation  is  that  one  plow- 
ing answers  for  three  crops.  When  the  clover  sod  is  plowed  for  corn  in 
the  spring  the  ground  breaks  up  easily  and  makes  an  ideal  seed-bed  for 
corn.  The  cultivation  given  the  corn  provides  a  good  seed-bed  for 
wheat  with  no  other  preparation  than  thorough  disking  and  harrowing 
of  the  corn  stubble.  This,  of  course,  necessitates  a  removal  of  the  corn 
stalks  sufficiently  early  to  seed  wheat.  It  is  not  applicable  where  the 
growing  season  is  too  short.  This  rotation  not  only  economizes  in  labor 
as  above  suggested,  but  makes  a  good  distribution  of  labor.  Further- 
more, it  provides  for  rather  continuous  occupation  of  the  soil.  If  the  sod 
devoted  to  corn  is  not  plowed  until  spring  and  corn  is  followed  by  fall 
seeding  of  wheat  in  which  grass  and  clover  is  seeded,  the  soil  will  be  subject 
to  erosion  only  during  the  time  it  is  in  corn.  Erosion  in  this  case  may 
take  place  in  times  of  heavy  rains  and  on  rolling  land,  by  the  water  run- 
ning down  the  furrows  between  the  corn  rows.  This  may  generally  be 
overcome  by  having  the  rows  and  cultivation  at  right  angles  to  the 
slope. 

This  is  a  fairly  good  rotation  for  the  stockman  and  dairy  farmer. 
Corn  furnishes  the  material  for  the  silo,  while  clover  hay  supplies  the 
protein  in  which  corn  is  deficient,  thus  giving  a  well-balanced  ration. 
The  wheat  straw  makes  good  bedding,  while  the  wheat  may  be  either  sold 
or  exchanged  for  concentrates.  On  farms  having  no  permanent  pasture 
the  clover  and  timothy  may  be  left  for  another  year,  cut  once  and  pastured 
afterwards;  or;  if  necessary,  it  may  be  pastured  throughout  the  fourth 


36 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


year.     If  used  for  this  purpose,  both  timothy  and  alsike  clover  should 
be  seeded  with  the  red  clover. 

The  following  five-  and  six-year  rotations  have  been  found  successful 


I 

19J4  Timothv 

1915  Corn 

1916  Oats 

1917  Wheat 

191X  Clover 

5     1914  Corn 

1915  Oats 

1916  Wheat 

1917  Clover 

1918  Timothy 

2 

1914  Clover 

1915  Timothy 

1916  Corn 

1917  Oats 

1918  Wheat 

3 

1914  Wheat 

1915  Clover 

1916  Timothy 

1917  Corn 

1918  Oats 

. 

\~ 

4 

1914  Oats 

Y/A                         1 

1915  Wheat 

y/\   ^^^ 

1916  Clover 

•***  /^     i 

1917  Timothy 

IFZL. 

1918  Corn 

w\ 

A  FIVE-YEAR  ROTATION. 


Field. 

1914. 

1915. 

1916. 

1917. 

1918. 

1—25  A.. 

Timothy 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Clover 

2  —   " 

Clover 

Timothy 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

3—    "    . 

Wheat 

Clover 

Timothy 

Corn 

Oats 

4—   "    

Oats 

Wheat 

Clover 

Timothy 

Corn 

5—    "    

Corn 

Oats 

WTheat 

Clover 

Timothy 

in  the  Great  Plains  area:  (1)  corn;  wheat;  brome-grass;  brome-grass; 
oats,  barley  or  emmer;  (2)  corn;  wheat;  brome-grass;  brome-grass; 
brome-grass;  oats,  barley  or  emmer.  In  these  rotations  the  wheat  may 


THE    ROTATION    OF    CROPS  37 

be  either  winter  or  spring,  and,  furthermore,  wheat  may  be  substituted 
for  any  of  the  last-mentioned  crops  in  either  of  the  rotations. 

Space  will  not  permit  the  enumeration  of  all  the  rotations  that  are 
possible.  With  a  clear  understanding  of  the  underlying  principles  and  a 
knowledge  concerning  the  utilization  and  market  value  of  the  crops  to  be 
grown,  any  farmer  may  plan  crop  rotations  best  suited  to  his  farm. 

Methods  of  Planning  and  Recording  Rotations. — It  is  a  principle 
that  there  should  be  as  many  fields  as  there  are  years  and  crops  in  the 
rotation,  unless  two  crops  can  be  harvested  from  the  land  in  one  year. 
It  is  also  advisable  that  the  fields  be  as  nearly  of  equal  size  and  produc- 
tivity as  possible.  This  provides  for  uniformity  in  distribution  of  work 
from  year  to  year,  as  well  as  in  the  utilization  of  the  products.  Where 
livestock  dominates  the  type  of  farming,  it  will  often  be  found  advisable 
to  adopt  two  rotations,  one  known  as  the  major  and  the  other  as  the 
minor  rotation.  The  former  will  include  the  staple  crops  grown  both 
for  feed  and  market,  while  the  latter  provide  soiling  and  annual  pasture 
crops.  In  such  a  scheme  the  minor  rotation  should  be  located  near  the 
farmstead  where  the  small  fields  will  be  easily  accessible.  The  tabulation 
on  preceding  page  shows  how  a  five-field  rotation  may  be  planned,  and 
serves  as  a  record  of  what  has  been  and  what  will  be  in  every  field  in  any 
particular  year. 

REFERENCES 

"Field  Crops."     Wilson  and  Warburton. 

"Soils  and  Fertilizers."     Snyder,  pages  131-159. 

Minnesota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  109.     "Rotation  of  Crops." 

Ohio  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182.     "Maintenance  of  Fertility." 

Rhode  Island  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  135.     "Crop  Rotations." 


THE  HEIGHT  OP  STALKS  AND  POSITIONS  OF  EARS  MAY  BE  GREATLY  CHANGED 
BY  SELECTION  OF  SEED  FOR  THESE  CHARACTERS.1 


38 


1  Courtesy  of  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  282,  "Corn  Experiments." 


CHAPTER  11  3 

CORN  (ZEA  MAIZE) 

The  average  acre  of  corn  produces  more  food  value  than  an  equal 
area  of  any  other  staple  crop  except  potatoes.  Corn  has  a  longer  season 
of  growth  than  most  other  staple  crops,  and,  consequently,  it  more  fully 
utilizes  the  plant  food  that  is  made  available  by  processes  going  on  in 
the  soil  when  reasonably  warm  and  moist.  It  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range 
of  soil  conditions.  It  fits  well  into  the  crop  rotations  without  seriously 
competing  with  other  crops  for  labor.  It  has  a  wide  range  of  uses.  The 
tillage  which  the  crop  receives  leaves  the  soil  in  excellent  condition  for 
the  crops  which  follow. 

Classification  of  Corn. — There  are  six  types  of  corn:  dent,  flint, 
sweet,  pop,  soft  and  pod.  The  first  four  only  are  of  importance  in 
America.  Fully  90  per  cent  of  the  corn  grown  in  North  America  is  of  the 
dent  type.  There  are  several  hundred  varieties  of  dent  corn  and  a  score 
or  more  varieties  of  flint  corn.  The  types  are  classified  according  to  color 
and  size.  Dent  corn  is  divided  into  three  classes  with  reference  to  size 
and  time  of  maturity,  namely:  early,  medium  and  late  maturing  varieties. 
It  is  also  divided  according  to  color  into  yellow  dent,  white  dent,  white 
cap  yellow  dent  and  mixed  dent  varieties. 

Varieties  of  Corn. — Of  the  several  hundred  varieties  of  dent  corn, 
comparatively  few  are  worthy  of  cultivation  in  any  particular  locality; 
and  yet  one  often  finds  many  varieties  within  a  restricted  area.  Where 
soil  conditions  are  uniform  over  several  counties,  one  or  two  varieties 
may  be  found  best  suited  to  the  whole  of  the  area. 

Corn  is  a  very  minor  crop  in  Canada,  the  most  of  it  being  grown  in 
the  Province  of  Ontario.  Flint  is  the  prevailing  type.  In  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  United  States,  including  New  England,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  varieties  of  flint  corn  are  extensively  grown 
on  the  higher  elevations  and  in  the  northernmost  latitudes.  Among  the 
best  known  varieties  of  this  class  may  be  mentioned  Longfellow,  King 
Phillip,  Smut  Nose,  Stickney's  Yellow,  Taylor's  Improved  Flint  and 
Davis'  Eight  Rowed  Flint.  The  prevailing  varieties  of  dent  corn  in  this 
section  are  Pride  of  the  North,  Early  Huron  Dent,  Funk's  90  Day, 
Learning  and  numerous  strains  of  white  cap  dent,  seldom  having  local 
names. 

In  the  typical  corn  belt  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri 

and  eastern  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  the  leading  varieties  are  Reed's  Yellow 

Dent,  Funk's  Yellow  Dent,  Learning,  Reilley's  Favorite,  Clarage,  Hogue's 

Yellow  Dent,  Hildreth's  Yellow  Dent,  Hiawatha  Yellow  Dent,  Boone 

12  39 , 


40 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


County  White,  Johnson  County  White,  Silver  Mine,  St.  Charles  White 
and  Kansas  Sunflower. 

In  the  Southern  states  we  have  among  the  large-eared  varieties: 
Huffman,  Excelsior,  Chisholm,  McMacnin's  Gourdseed,  St.  Charles 
White,  Boone  County  White,  Rockdale,  Singleton  and  Ferguson's  Yellow 
Dent.  Among  the  two-eared  varieties  may  be  mentioned  Lewis'  Prolific, 
Hickory  King  and  Neal's  Paymaster.  Prolific  varieties,  producing  two 
or  more  ears  to  a  stalk,  are  Cocke's,  Albemarle,  Whatley's,  Mosby's, 
Basting's,  Marlborough  and  Batts'. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  corn  belt,  including  the  states  of 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas  and  the  northern  portions 
of  Illinois  and  Iowa,  the  most  common  varieties  are  Silver  King,  Pride  of 
the  North,  Wisconsin  No.  7,  Murdock,  Wimple's  Yellow  Dent,  Pickett's 
Yellow  Dent  and  Golden  Eagle. 

The  best  variety  for  any  locality  can  be  determined  only  by  local 
variety  tests.  Such  tests  have  been  conducted  in  many  counties  through 
the  effort  of  the  local  organizations  in  co-operation  with  the  state  experi- 
ment stations.  The  results  for  such  tests  for  sixteen  counties  in  Iowa  for 
the  year  1911  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

VARIETY  TEST,  1911. 
Average  of  Sixteen  Counties  in  Iowa. 


Number 
of 
Samples. 

Yield 
per  Acre, 
bushels. 

Standing, 
October, 
per  cent. 

Strong, 
per  cent. 

Weak, 
per  cent. 

Dead, 
per  cent. 

Barren, 
per  cent. 

Farmer's  variety  test  
One-tenth  highest  yielding 
One-tenth  lowest  yielding. 
Imported  seed  

966 
97 
97 

128 

54.3 
62.0 
44.5 
53.0 

78.0 
81.5 
71.0 
81  5 

78.1 
80.5 
73.5 
67.0 

14.6 
14.5 
15.0 
27.0 

7.3 
5.0 
11.5 
6  0 

5.2 
4.4 
6.1 
5  9 

Seed-house  seed  

190 

49.5 

72.0 

61.5 

26.5 

12.0 

4.6 

INDIVIDUAL  EAR  TEST,  1911. 
Average  of  Sixteen  Counties  in  Iowa. 


Number 
of 
Samples. 

Yield 
per  Acre, 
bushels. 

Standing, 
October, 
per  cent. 

Strong, 
per  cent. 

Weak, 
per  cent. 

Dead, 
per  cent. 

Barren, 
per  cent. 

Individual  ears 

1  440 

53  5 

78  5 

83  5 

11  5 

5   0 

5  7 

One-fourth  highest  yielding 

360 

62.0 

83.0 

85.5 

11.5 

3.0 

4.5 

One-fourth  lowest  yielding 

360 

43.5 

71.5 

77.5 

11.5 

11.0 

7.6 

The  large  number  of  samples  tested  and  the  average  results  secured 
make  conclusions  relative  to  the  differences  found  in  yield  and  other 
qualities  rather  definite.  It  will  be  noted  that  one-tenth  of  the  samples 
giving  highest  yields  averaged  62  bushels  per  acre,  while  one-tenth  of 


CORN 


41 


the  samples  giving  lowest  yields  average  44.5  bushels  per  acre,  or  only 
about  two-thirds  as  much  as  the  best  yielding  samples.  Note  also  that 
over  100  samples  of  imported  seed  averaged  less  per  acre  than  did  nearly 
1000  samples  of  home-grown  seed.  Likewise,  the  360  ear-to-row  tests 
giving  the  highest  yields  were  no  better  than  the  best  one-tenth  of  the 
larger  samples  tested.  One-fourth  of  the  ear-to-row  samples  giving  the 
lowest  yield  averaged  a  little  more  than  two-thirds  as  much  as  the  one- 
fourth  giving  the  highest  yields.  The  results  show  wide  differences  and 
emphasize  the  importance  of  the  farmer  selecting  for  his  soil  and  locality 
the  variety  that  will  do  best.  Such  selection  will  evidently  make  a  great 
difference  in  the  total  yield  of  corn  on  a  given  acreage. 


CORN  ACREAGE  BY  STATES,  1915. 
(Three  ciphers  omitted.) 

The  Chief  Corn-Growing  States. — In  order  of  their  respective  pro- 
duction, they  are  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Ohio,  Texas,  Oklahoma  and  Kentucky.  These  ten  states  produce  a  little 
more  than  70  per  cent  of  all  the  corn  produced  in  the  United  States. 
More  than  80  per  cent  of  the  corn  produced  in  the  United  States  is  con- 
sumed within  the  counties  in  which  it  is  grown.  The  great  use  of  corn 
is  as  a  feed  for  livestock.  There  are  a  few  counties,  especially  in  the 
State  of  Illinois,  where  a  considerable  portion  of  the  corn  is  marketed  and 
goes  outside  of  the  counties  in  which  it  is  produced. 

North  America  produces  three-quarters  of  the  world's  corn,  nearly 
all  of  which  is  produced  within  the  borders  of  the  United  States.  Of  the 


42 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


remaining  one-quarter  of  the  world's  production,  Europe  produces  about 
two-thirds  and  South  America  and  Australia  the  remainder. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — Corn  is  best  adapted  to  well-drained 
soils  that  are  deep,  loamy  and  warm.  Large  yields  demand  a  high-water 
capacity  of  the  soil  and  this  is  materially  increased  by  deep  drainage, 
deep  plowing  and  organic  matter.  Corn  requires  a  growing  season  rang- 
ing from  100  to  170  days,  through  which  period  the  temperature  should 
be  high  and  accompanied  by  warm  rains.  An  abundance  of  rainfall 
properly  distributed  is  essential.  In  the  typical  corn  belt  the  rainfall 
during  July  and  August  is  most  important,  and  the  yield  of  corn  is  deter- 
mined to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  rain  during  these  two  months. 


YIELD  dF  COftft  PER  ACRE 
PRECIPfTATIoh  IN  JJ/LY 


CHART  SHOWING  How  CLOSELY  CORN  YIELD  FOLLOWS  AMOUNT  OF  RAINFALL. 

The  accompanying  chart  shows  the  average  yield  of  corn  for  a  period  of 
fifteen  years,  together  with  the  July  precipitation  for  the  same  years. 
There  is  a  fairly  close  correlation  between  July  rainfall  and  the  average 
yield  of  corn. 

It  is  not  profitable  to  grow  corn  on  very  poor  land.  The  nature 
of  the  corn  plant  is  such  that  it  will  not  produce  grain  unless  the  soil  is 
sufficiently  rich  to  afford  considerable  growth  of  stalk.  In  general,  the 
richer  the  soil  the  heavier  will  be  the  yield  of  grain.  Some  other  crops 
will  produce  fair  yields  on  soil  too  poor  to  produce  corn. 

Crop  Rotation  for  Corn. — Corn  cannot  be  grown  continuously  on  the 
same  soil  without  diminished  yields.  A  rotation  of  crops  is,  therefore, 
essential.  In  this  rotation  should  occur  at  least  one  leguminous  crop. 


CORN 


43 


East  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line, 
common  red  clover  is  best  suited  for  this  purpose.  Alfalfa,,  crimson  clover 
and  alsike  clover  may  be  substituted  for  it  under  certain  conditions.  Over 
a  considerable  portion  of  this  region  the  most  usual  rotation  is  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  and  clover  and  timothy.  This  provides  for  a  rotation  ranging 
from  four  to  seven  years,  depending  on  the  length  of  tune  the  land  is 
left  in  grass  and  whether  or  not  corn  is  grown  more  than  one  year  in  the 
rotation.  In  this  rotation  the  corn  should  follow  the  sod  on  which  may 
be  scattered  the  manure  prior  to  plowing.  No  other  crop  is  better  adapted 
to  utilize  the  available  nitrogen  and  mineral  constituents  that  are  slowly 
brought  into  a  state  of  availability  through  decomposition  of  the  roots, 
stubble  and  manure. 

On  fertile  soils  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation  corn  may  be  grown  two 
years  in  succession.  This  will  require  sufficient  manure  to  apply  on  the 
corn  land  two  years  in  succession,  or  will  demand  an  application  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers  for  the  second  year's  crop. 

In  the  South  the  crops  associated  with  corn  in  the  rotation  are  quite 
different.  In  most  cases  cotton  is  the  chief  money  crop;  cowpeas  and 
soy  beans  are  the  chief  legumes;  and  winter  oats  is  the  principal  small 
grain.  The  rotation  frequently  consists  of  cotton  followed  by  cotton, 
with  cowpeas  planted  between  the  cotton  rows.  The  third  year  the  land 
is  planted  in  corn  and  seeded  to  winter  oats  after  the  com  has  been  removed. 
After  the  oats  are  harvested  in  the  fourth  year  the  land  is  broadcasted  with 
cowpeas,  and  these  harvested  for  hay.  This  rotation  has  proven  successful 
in  many  parts  of  the  cotton  belt. 

Many  of  the  experiment  stations  have  tested  different  rotations. 
The  following  tabulation  gives  the  average  results  with  corn  in  two  rota- 
tions covering  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  years  at  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station : 

CONTINUOUS  vs.  ROTATION  CORN.     TWENTY  YEARS'  WORK. 


System. 

Treatment. 

Application 
per  Acre. 

Average  Yield  per  Acre, 
bushels. 

Aver- 
age 
Yield 
for 
20 
Years. 

Per  Crop. 

Per  5  Years. 

1st 
Period. 

2d 
Period. 

3d 
Period. 

4th 
Period. 

Continuous.  .  .  . 
Rotation*  

Continuous.  .  .  . 
Rotation*  

None  
None 





26.26  16.76 
31.89;  30.82 

43.13  40.11 
40.73  49.52 

10.43 
31.04 

34.62 
59.75 

8.44 

20.31 

30.22 
55.83 

15.47 
28.95 

37.02 
51.81 

Manure  .    . 

5  tons 
8  tons 

25  tons 
16  tons 

Manure  

Continuous  .... 
Rotation*  

Com.  fert.  .  .  . 
Com.  fert.... 

250  Ibs. 
320  Ibs. 

1250  Ibs. 
985  Ibs. 

38.86 
35.78 

39.09 

49.54 

28.00 
53.91 

26.83 
44.10 

33.19 
46.49 

Rotation  f  
Rotation  f  

Manure  
None  

8  tons  once  in  3  years  on  corn. 
Average  of  8  unfertilized  plots. 

60.20* 
35.19* 

*  Five-year  rotation. 


t  Three-year  rotation. 


t  Average  for  17  years. 


44  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

It  will  be  noted  that  where  corn  was  grown  continuously  the  yields 
have  declined  regardless  of  the  character  of  the  manure  or  fertilizer 
applied,  whereas  corn  grown  in  a  rotation  has  increased  decidedly  in  yield 
when  either  manure  or  fertilizers  have  been  used. 

Plowing  for  Corn. — Plowing  for  corn  may  be  done  either  in  the  fall, 
winter  or  spring.  In  many  sections  of  the  country  fall  plowing  gives  better 
results  than  spring  plowing.  The  difference,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to 
justify  the  advice  that  fall  plowing  should  be  universal.  Every  acre  that 
is  plowed  in  the  fall  or  winter  facilitates  getting  crops  in  the  ground  at 
the  proper  season  in  the  spring.  Deep  plowing  for  corn  deposits  the 
trash  and  manure  to  a  greater  depth  and  induces  the  roots  to  go  deeper 
into  the  soil,  thus  coming  into  contact  with  more  plant  food  and  soil 
moisture  from  which  to  draw  nourishment.  Deep  plowing  enables  the 
soil  to  absorb  a  larger  proportion  of  the  rainfall,  thus  increasing  its  capacity 
for  water.  The  further  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  by  disking  and  har- 
rowing should  leave  it  in  a  loose,  friable  condition  to  a  considerable  depth. 
Such  a  seed-bed  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  compact  and  finely  pulver- 
ized one  that  is  essential  to  wheat. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers  for  Corn. — The  amount  and  character  of 
fertilizer  for  corn  varies  greatly  in  different  localities,  depending  on  the 
character  of  soil,  length  of  time  it  has  been  in  cultivation,  and  the  rota- 
tion of  crops.  No  definite  formula  is  applicable  to  any  very  large  terri- 
tory. As  a  rule,  no  crop  makes  better  use  of  barnyard  manure  than  corn. 
Six  to  ten  tons  of  stable  manure  to  an  acre  of  grass  sod  is  generally  suf- 
ficient. In  growing  corn,  all  of  the  nitrogen  needed  should  be  secured 
from  the  manure  and  leguminous  crops  that  enter  into  the  rotation.  On 
soils  not  in  a  high  state  of  fertility,  the  manure  may  be  supplemented  by 
about  200  pounds  per  acre  of  acid  phosphate.  In  portions  of  Indiana, 
Illinois  and  Iowa,  rock  phosphate  may  be  advantageously  substituted  for 
acid  phosphate.  On  sandy  soils  and  on  swampy  soils  some  potash  may  be 
advantageously  used. 

In  the  absence  of  barnyard  manure  good  corn  crops  may  be  secured 
by  the  liberal  use  of  a  complete  fertilizer  in  which  phosphoric  acid  is  the 
dominant  ingredient.  The  amount  of  such  fertilizer  and  its  exact  com- 
position will  depend  on  the  character  and  condition  of  the  soil  in  question. 
The  average  composition  of  such  a  fertilizer  would  be  from  2  to  3  per 
cent  of  nitrogen,  7  to  10  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  3  to  6  per  cent 
of  potash.  The  amount  to  use  will  range  from  100  to  500  pounds  per 
acre,  depending  on  location.  The  character  of  fertilizer  and  the  amount 
required  can  best  be  ascertained  by  actual  test.  In  general,  applications 
of  less  than  200  pounds  may  be  applied  through  the  fertilizer  attachment 
to  the  corn  planter.  Where  large  amounts  are  used,  it  is  best  to  distribute 
it  throughout  the  soil  before  planting  the  corn. 

Experiments  that  have  been  in  progress  for  twenty  years  at  the  Ohio 
Experiment  Station  emphasize  the  importance  of  phosphorus  in  corn 


CORN 


TIME  OF  PLANTING,  APRIL  29rH.1 

production.  A  series  of  plats  which  received  nothing  save  320  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  per  acre  during  each  five-year  rotation  showed  an  increase 
in  the  yield  of  the  several  crops  valued  at  $16.52  per  acre.  The  acid 
phosphate  cost  $2.24,  thus  leaving  a  net  gain  of  $14.28. 

The  addition  of  phosphorus  to  manure  also  increased  the  yield  very 
materially. 

Time  and  Method  of  Planting. — The  time  of  planting  corn  varies 
with  the  location  and  character  of  season.  It  is  never  advisable  to  plant 
until  the  soil  is  sufficiently  warm  to  cause  a  prompt  germination  of  the 


TIME  OF  PLANTING,  MAY 


Courtesy  of  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  282,  "Corn  Experiments." 


46 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TIME  OP  PLANTING,  MAY 


seed.  The  best  of  seed  will  often  rot  in  a  cold,  wet  seed-bed.  In  the 
United  States  the  corn  planting  season  from  the  Gulf  northward  ranges 
from  the  15th  of  February  until  June  1st,  a  period  of  three  and  one-half 
months.  In  the  heart  of  the  typical  corn  belt  corn  is  generally  planted 
between  the  1st  and  10th  of  May,  while  in  the  northernmost  limit  of  suc- 
cessful corn  production,  the  planting  season  ranges  from  the  15th  to  31st 
of  May.  In  any  locality  the  best  time  to  plant  will  not  be  far  from  the 
time  when  the  leaves  of  the  oak  trees  are  the  size  of  a  squirrel's  ear.  If 
seasonal  conditions  retard  the  work  and  necessitate  planting  two  wreeks 


TIME  OF  PLANTING,  MAY  26TH.1 


1  Courtesy  of  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  282,  "Cora  Experiments. 


CORN 


47 


later  than  the  best  time,  it  will  be  wise  throughout  most  of  the  typical 
corn  belt,  and  especially  in  the  northernmost  districts,  to  resort  to 
varieties  of  corn  of  earlier  maturity  than  those  generally  grown  in  the 
locality.  In  the  Southern  states  the  season  is  so  long  that  there  is  a 
much  wider  range  in  the  planting  period.  A  uniform  stand  of  vigorous 
plants  is  most  easily  secured  by  deferring  planting  until  the  soil  is  in  the 
proper  moisture  and  temperature  condition. 

Several  of  the  state  experiment  stations  have  conducted  tests  extend- 
ing over  a  number  of  years  relative  to  the  best  time  to  plant  corn.  As 
an  average  of  six  years'  work  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  there  was 
little  difference  in  yield  in  planting  any  tune  between  the  1st  and  20th 
of  May.  For  dates  much  later  than  the  20th  there  was  a  marked  reduc- 
tion in  yield.  Planting  in  the  last  week  in  April  was  nearly  as  good  as 


TIME  OF  PLANTING,  JUNE  6TH.1 

planting  between  the  1st  and  20th  of  May.  It  is  better  to  plant  too  early 
than  to  plant  too  late.  Failure  in  case  of  early  planting  may  be  corrected 
by  replanting,  but  there  is  no  remedial  measure  for  a  planting  that  is 
made  too  late. 

Rate  of  Planting. — A  full  stand  of  corn  is  essential.  The  number  of 
plants  per  acre  will  vary  with  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  kind  of  corn 
and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  grown.  Fertile  soils  will  support  more 
plants  per  acre  than  poor  ones.  Small  varieties  may  be  more  thickly 
planted  than  large  ones,  and  an  abundant  moisture  supply  in  the  soil 
will  mature  more  plants  than  when  dry.  When  planted  for  grain,  10,000 
to  12,000  plants  per  acre  are  probably  best  throughout  the  greater  portion 
of  the  corn  belt.  In  the  South,  on  thinner  soils,  fewer  plants  are  often 
desirable.  If  grown  largely  for  fodder  or  ensilage,  corn  may  be  planted 
one-quarter  thicker  than  when  grown  for  grain. 

1  Courtesy  of  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station ,  Bulletin  282,  "Corn  Experiments." 


48  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Numerous  experiments  indicate  that  there  is  little  difference  within 
a  reasonable  range  whether  corn  is  planted  in  hills  or  drills.  When 
planted  in  checks  three  kernels  per  hill,  3  feet  8  inches  apart,  an  acre  will 
contain  9720  plants.  When  planted  in  drills  with  the  rows  3  feet  8  inches 
apart  and  one  plant  every  14  inches  in  the  rows,  an  acre  will  contain  10,180 
plants.  Drilling  is  somewhat  easier  and  safer  on  small,  irregular  fields 
and  on  land  that  is  of  uneven  topography,  and  is  preferable  on  most  lands 
that  are  reasonably  free  of  weeds.  On  badly  weed-infested  land  checking 
the  corn  is  recommended,  because  of  the  better  facilities  offered  for  culti- 
vation and  weed  extermination. 

On  the  better  lands  in  the  corn  belt  there  has  been  a  tendency  in 
recent  years  to  lessen  the  distance  between  hills,  and  in  many  districts 
40  inches  is  now  the  common  planting  distance. 

At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  the  average  annual  yield  per  acre 
for  a  period  of  ten  years  when  corn  was  planted  at  the  rate  of  1,  2,  3,  4 
and  5  kernels  per  hill,  with  hills  42  inches  apart,  the  largest  yield  was 
secured  from  4  kernels.  The  yields  were  as  follows:  1  kernel,  31.7  bushels; 
2  kernels,  50.8  bushels;  3  kernels,  60.8  bushels;  4  kernels,  64.9  bushels, 
and  5  kernels,  63  bushels  per  acre.  The  yield  of  stover  was  largest  in 
case  of  5  kernels  per  hill.  The  reduced  size  of  ears  and  the  increased 
labor  in  husking  are  such  as  to  indicate  3  kernels  per  hill  as  the  best  rate 
of  planting  when  grown  for  grain. 

In  regions  of  abundant  rainfall  corn  is  planted  on  the  level,  but  in 
regions  of  low  rainfall  it  is  frequently  planted  in  furrows  by  what  is 
known  as  listing.  This  encourages  a  deeper  rooting  of  the  plants,  which 
protects  them  from  severe  droughts. 

Depth  of  Planting. — The  depth  at  which  to  plant  corn  will  vary 
with  the  character  and  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  nature  of  the  season. 
In  loose,  loamy  soils  the  depth  may  safely  be  3  inches,  and  in  the  absence 
of  sufficient  moisture  near  the  surface  4  inches  in  depth  may  be  justified. 
On  wet,  heavy  soils  1J  inches  to  2  inches  will  be  better  than  to  plant 
deeper.  No  matter  at  what  depth  corn  is  planted,  the  permanent  roots 
start  at  a  point  about  one  inch  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  depth 
of  rooting  is  not  influenced  by  the  depth  of  planting,  unless  the  depth  is 
less  than  one  inch. 

Preparation  of  Seed  for  Planting. — Before  shelling  corn  for  planting 
it  is  important  to  remove  all  irregular  kernels  from  the  butts  and  tips  of 
ears.  Such  kernels  will  not  pass  through  the  corn-planter  with  uniformity. 
Before  being  shelled  the  ears  should  be  assorted  into  two  or  three  lots, 
according  to  the  size  of  kernels,  and  the  shelled  corn  from  each  lot  kept 
separate  so  that  the  planter  plates  may  be  adjusted  to  each  size.  The 
same  results  may  be  secured  by  the  use  of  a  seed-corn  grader,  of  which 
there  are  several  kinds  on  the  market. 

The  planter  should  be  carefully  adjusted  to  each  lot  of  seed.  A 
poorly  adjusted  machine  may  offset  the  advantages  derived  from  the 


CORN 


49 


carefully  selected  and  graded  seed.  An  actual  count  of  the  number  of 
missing  hills  or  plants  on  an  acre  would  prove  to  the  grower  his  loss 
through  imperfect  planting.  Extensive  investigations  over  large  areas 
have  shown  that  in  certain  years  farmers  secured  not  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  the  full  stand.  If  75  per  cent  of  a  full  stand  produces  40 
bushels  to  the  acre,  what  will  95  per  cent  of  a  full  stand  produce? 

Cultivation  of  Corn. — It  is  a  trite  saying  that  the  cultivation  of  corn 
should  begin  before  it  is  planted.     This  means  that  the  final  preparation 
of  the  seed-bed  should  take  place  just  before  planting,  in  order  that  all 
weeds  that  have  just 
begun  to  grow  will  be 
destroyed.    In  the  ab- 
sence of  such  prepara- 
tion weeds  that  have 
started  will  make  so 
much   growth    before 
the  corn  comes  up  that 


THE    LAST   CULTIVATION 
SHOULD   BE    SHALLOW 


DEEP  CULTIVATION 
EARLY  IN  THE  SEASON 
SAVES  THE  MOISTURE 


SHALLOW  CULTIVATION 
LATE  IN  THE  SEASON 
SAVES  THE  CORN  ROOTS 


it  will  make  the  first 
cultivation  difficult. 
Small  corn  may  be 
harrowed  with  a  slant- 
toothed  smoothing 
harrow  without  in  j  ury . 
A  thorough  harrowing 
at  such  a  time  will 
destroy  many  weeds 
that  are  beginning  to 
grow,  and  is  equally 
as  effective  as  one  good 
cultivation,  and  much 
more  quickly  done. 

The  chief  objects 
of  cultivation  are :  (1) 
to  destroy  weeds,  (2) 

conserve  moisture,  (3)  aerate  the  soil,  and  (4)  increase  the  absorption  of 
rainfall  by  keeping  the  surface  loose.  Under  most  conditions  level  and  shal- 
low cultivation  is  superior  to  deep  cultivation  and  the  ridging  of  the  soil. 
Deep  cultivation  cuts  many  of  the  corn  roots,  thus  reducing  the  ability 
of  the  plants  to  secure  both  plant  food  and  moisture.  In  general,  the 
first  cultivation  may  be  fairly  deep,  thus  inducing  a  deeper  rooting  of 
the  corn  plants,  after  which  shallower  cultivation  should  take  place  which 
will  interfere  but  little  with  the  roots.  One  hundred  and  sixteen  tests 
at  thirteen  experiment  stations  relative  to  the  depth  of  cultivation  for 


THE  RIGHT  AND  WRONG  WAY  OF  CULTIVATING  CoRN.1 


1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Agricultural  Extension   Department, 
pamphlet  "Corn  is  King." 


From 


50 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


com  show  a  difference  of  more  than  15  per  cent  in  yield  in  favor  of  shallow 
cultivation.  Sixty-one  tests  of  deep  cultivation  gave  an  average  yield  of 
64.9  bushels  per  acre,  while  55  tests  of  shallow  cultivation  gave  an  aver- 
age yield  of  74.7  bushels,  a  difference  of  nearly  10  bushels  per  acre.  One 
to  two  inches  is  considered  shallow  cultivation  and  four  to  five  inches 
deep  cultivation. 

The  frequency  of  cultivation  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  surface  con- 
dition of  the  soil  and  the  presence  of  weeds.  In  the  absence  of  weeds 
and  with  the  surface  soil  in  a  loose  condition,  little  is  to  be  gained  by 
cultivation. 

Methods  of  Harvesting. — Throughout  the  typical  corn  belt  a  large 
proportion  of  the  corn  is  harvested  from  the  standing  stalks  in  the  field, 
and  the  stalks  are  pastured  or  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  This  method 
fails  to  fully  utilize  the  by-products  of  corn  production,  and  is  wasteful  in 


SEVERAL  FORMS  OF  HUSKING  PEGS.* 


the  extreme.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  the  whole  plant 
is  generally  harvested  and  utilized.  When  corn  is  grown  for  feeding 
dairy  cows  or  steers  the  fullest  utilization  of  the  entire  product  is  attained 
by  storing  in  the  silo.  For  this  purpose  it  should  be  cut  when  the  kernels 
have  begun  to  glaze  and  the  husks  and  lower  leaves  are  turning  brown. 
When  not  to  be  used  for  silage,  corn  should  be  put  in  shocks  at  a  some- 
what more  advanced  stage  of  maturity.  Three  to  four  hundred  stalks 
make  a  shock  sufficiently  large  to  stand  well  and  cure  properly.  The  corn 
should  be  husked  in  three  to  six  weeks  after  shocking,  the  ears  stored  in 
a  well-ventilated  crib,  and  the  stover  reshocked.  Care  should  be  exercised 
to  so  stand  and  slant  the  stover  that  the  shocks  will  stand.  They  should 
be  securely  tied  about  two  feet  from  the  tops  with  strong  binder  twine. 
It  is  a  waste  of  good  material  to  allow  the  shocks  to  stand  in  the  field 
until  March  or  April. 

i  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  313,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


CORN 


51 


It  is  wise  to  feed  stover  during  the  winter  period.  Its  feeding  value 
may  be  increased  by  shredding.  This  encourages  livestock  to  consume 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  stalks.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the  feeding  value  of 
the  corn  stover  lies  in  the  portion  of  the  stalk  below  the  ear.  When  this 
is  neither  cut  nor  shredded  very  little  of  it  is  eaten  by  livestock.  Shred- 
ding or  cutting  better  fits  the  refuse  for  bedding  purposes  and  facilitates 
the  handling  of  the  manure  in  which  the  refuse  is  finally  deposited. 

In  storing  cut  or  shredded  fodder  one  should  be  certain  that  it  does 
not  contain  too  much  moisture.  It  should  be  reasonably  dry  when  stored 
in  large  bulk  in  order  to  prevent  heating  and  spoiling.  It  is  well,  there- 
fore, to  shred  when  weather  conditions  are  fairly  dry,  and  not  until  the 
corn  stover  has  become  thoroughly  cured. 

SHRINKAGE  OP  CORN  IN  CRIB  BY  MONTHS.    AVERAGE  8  YEARS, 
IOWA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Month. 

Total  Shrinkage 
to  Date, 
per  cent. 

Average  for 
the  Month, 
per  cent. 

November  

5  2 

5  2 

December  

6  9 

1  7 

January  

7  5 

6 

February  

7  8 

3 

March  

9  7 

1  9 

April  

12  8 

3  1 

May  

14  7 

1  9 

June  

16  3 

1  6 

July  

17  3 

1  0 

August  

17  8 

5 

September  

18  2 

4 

October  

18  2 

0 

The  cheapest  method  of  harvesting  corn  is  to  pasture  with  hogs. 
This  is  known  as  hogging  down  corn.  The  results  of  a  four  years'  test 
at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  showed  that  hogging  down  corn  gave 
a  return  of  324.5  pounds  of  pork  per  acre,  which,  at  6  cents  per  pound,  was 
valued  at  $19.48.  The  average  number  of  hogs  per  acre  was  14,  and  the 
number  of  days  kept  in  the  field  was  35.  This  was  on  poor  land  and  with 
corn  yielding  25  to  30  bushels  per  acre. 

Storing  Corn. — The  grain  of  corn  is  best  stored  for  a  time  on  the  ear 
in  a  well-ventilated  crib  or  building.  Corn  cribs  of  slatted  sides  with 
openings  just  small  enough  to  prevent  ears  passing  through  are  almost 
universally  used  for  this  purpose.  They  should  be  covered  with  roofs 
projecting  some  distance  beyond  the  sides,  and  turn  water  without  leaking. 
Cribs  should  be  on  elevated  foundations,  preferably  of  masonry  or  con- 
crete. The  concrete  floors  are  the  best.  All  precaution  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  serious  loss  by  rats  and  mice.  Corn  should  not  be  put  in  the 


52 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


crib  until  reasonably  well  cured.  If  very  wet  when  cribbed  it  is  likely 
to  mould  and  decay.  Ear  corn  at  husking  time  will  contain  15  to  40  per 
cent  of  moisture,  depending  on  conditions.  After  standing  for  six  months 
or  more  in  the  crib,  the  moisture,  under  normal  conditions,  will  range 
from  10  to  12  per  cent.  After  this  time  shrinkage  from  loss  of  moisture 
will  be  slight. 

Shrinkage  of  Corn. — A  knowledge  of  the  average  shrinkage  of  corn 
is  important  in  connection  with  future  prices,  and  should  be  taken  into 
consideration  by  the  farmer  in  connection  with  the  holding  of  corn  for  a 
future  market.  The  table  on  preceding  page  shows  the  average  shrink- 
age of  corn  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  as  determined  for  eight 
successive  years. 

Market  Grades  of  Corn. — According  to  the  act  of  Congress  of 
June  30,  1906,  and  March  4,  1913,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  has 
fixed  the  following  definite  grades  of  grain,  which  went  into  effect  on 
July  1,  1914: 

STANDARD  GRADES  OF  CORN  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  SAME. 


Grade  and 
Classification: 
White,  Yellow 
and  Mixed  Corn. 

Moisture. 

Maximum 
Percentage 
of 
Damaged 
Corn. 

Maximum  Percentage 
of  Foreign  Material, 
Including  Dirt,  Cob, 
Other  Grains,  Finely 
Broken  Corn,  etc. 

Maximum  Percentage 
of  "Cracked"  Corn, 
not  Including  Finely 
Broken  Corn.      (See 
General  Rule  9.) 

No.  1 

14  0 

* 

1 

2 

No.  2  

15.5 

* 

1 

3 

No.  3  

17.5 

* 

2 

4 

No.  4  

19.5 

fO.  5 

2 

4 

No.  5  
No.  6 

21.5 
23  0 

n. 

J3. 

3 
5 

5 

7 

*  Exclusive  of  heat-damaged  or  mahogany  kernels. 

t  May  include  heat-damaged  or  mahogany  kernels  not  to  exceed  the  percentage  indicated. 

"Sample" — See  General  Rule  No.  6  for  sample  grade. 


GENERAL  RULES 

1.  The  corn  in  grades  No.  1  to  No.  5,  inclusive,  must  be  "sweet. 

2.  White  corn,  all  grades,  shall  be  at  least  98  per  cent  white. 

3.  Yellow  corn,  all  grades,  shall  be  at  least  95  per  cent  yellow. 

4.  Mixed  corn,  all  grades,  shall  include  corn  of  various  colors  not  coming  within  the 

limits  for  color  as  provided  for  under  white  or  yellow  corn. 

5.  In  addition  to  the  various  limits  indicated,  No.  6  corn  may  be  musty,  sour,  and 

may  also  include  corn  of  inferior  quality,  such  as  immature  and  badly  blistered. 

6.  All  corn  that  does  not  meet  the  requirements  of  either  of  the  six  numerical  grades, 

by  reason  of  an  excessive  percentage  of  moisture,  damaged  kernels,  foreign 
matter,  or  "cracked  corn,"  corn  that  is  hot,  heat-damaged,  fire-burnt,  infested 
with  live  weevil,  or  otherwise  of  distinctly  low  quality,  shall  be  classed  as 
sample  grade. 

7.  In  No.  6  and  sample  grade,  reasons  for  so  grading  shall  be  stated  on  the  inspector's 

certificate. 

8.  Finely  broken  corn  shall  include  all  broken  particles  of  corn  that  will  pass  through 

a  perforated  metal  sieve  with  round  holes  &  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


CORN 


53 


9.  "Cracked"  corn  shall  include  all  coarsely  broken  pieces  of  kernels  that  will  pass 
through  a  perforated  metal  sieve  with  round  holes  \  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  except 
that  the  finely  broken  corn  as  provided  under  Rule  No.  8  shall  not  be  considered 
as  "cracked"  corn. 

10.  It  is  understood  that  the  damaged  corn,  the  foreign  material,  including  pieces 

of  cob,  dirt,  finely  broken  corn,  other  grams,  etc.,  and  the  coarsely  broken  or 
"cracked"  corn,  as  provided  for  under  the  various  grades  shall  be  such  as  occur 
naturally  in  corn  when  handled  under  good  commercial  conditions. 

11.  Moisture  percentages,  as  provided  for  in  these  grade  specifications,  shall  conform 

to  results  obtained  by  the  standard  method  and  tester  as  described  in  Circular 
No.  72,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Composition  and  Feeding  Value  of  Corn, — The  following  is  a  com- 
pilation of  American  analyses  of  the  grain  of  the  three  principal  types 
of  corn  and  the  stalks  of  dent  corn,  under  three  conditions: 


COMPOSITION  OF  CORN  (MAIZE). 


Grain. 

Silage. 

Fodder. 

Stover. 

All 
Varieties. 

Dent. 

Flint. 

Sweet. 

Fresh. 

Field 
Cured. 

Field 
Cured. 

60. 
40.1 
3.4 
3.8 
19.7 
31.9 
1.1 

Number  of  analyses  
Water  

208. 
10.9 
1.5 
10.5 
2.1 
69.6 
5.4 

86. 
10.6 
1.5 
10.3 
2.2 
70.4 
5.0 

68. 

11.3 
1.4 
10.5 
1.7 
70.1 
5.0 

26. 
8.8 
1.9 
11.6 

2.8 
66.8 
8.1 

99. 

79.1 
1.4 
1.7 
6.0 
11.1 
0.8 

35. 

42.2 
2.7 
4.5 
14.3 
34.7 
1.6 

Ash 

Protein  (Nitrogen  x  6.  25)  . 
Crude  fiber  

Nitrogen-free  extract  .... 
Fat.  . 

The  following  tabulation  gives  the  farm  value  and  feeding  value  of 
corn  per  acre  as  compared  with  oats,  wheat  and  hay,  when  grown  in  a 
four  years'  rotation  on  the  limestone  soil  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment 
Station : 


THE  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  YIELD  DURING  25  YEARS  OF  24  TREATMENTS  ON  36 
PLATS  ON  EACH  OF  4  TIERS  AT  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATION. 


Averag 
per; 

e  Yield 
*.cre. 

Price 
per  100 

Farm 
Value 

Digest- 
ible 

Energy 
Value. 

Pounds. 

Bushels. 

pounds. 

per  Acre. 

Protein, 
pounds. 

therms 
per  Acre. 

Corn,  ears    .... 

3  534 

50  5 

SO   75 

$26  51 

160 

3  198 

Corn,  stover  

2528 

125 

3  16 

40 

671 

Oats,  grain  

1  227 

38  1 

1  00 

12  27 

102 

813 

Oats,  straw  

1,772 

125 

2  22 

19 

370 

Wheat,  gram  

1  192 

19  9 

1  33 

15  85 

106 

985 

Wheat,  straw  

2,099 

125 

2  62 

8 

348 

Timothy  and  clover  hay  

3,609 

50 

18  05 

135 

1  232 

54 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


These  figures  may  be  condensed  into  a  table  that  will  bring  out  the 
comparison  in  a  more  striking  manner,  as  shown  below: 

COMPARISON  OP  DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN,  ENERGY  VALUE  AND  FARM  VALUE  PER 

ACRE  OF  4  CROPS  WHEN  GROWN  IN  ROTATION  DURING  25 

YEARS  (1882-1906).* 


Digestible  Protein, 
pounds. 

Energy  Value, 
therms. 

Farm  Value. 

Corn  

206 

3,869 

$29.67 

Oats 

121 

1  189 

14  49 

Wheat 

114 

1,333 

18  47 

Hay 

135 

1,232 

18  50 

CORN  IMPROVEMENT 

No  crop  is  more  easily  and  rapidly  improved  by  selection  and  breeding 
than  corn.  No  work  on  the  farm  will  come  so  near  producing  something 
for  nothing  as  time  intelligently  spent  in  improving  this  crop.  It  is  just 
as  important  to  use  well-bred  seed-corn  as  it  is  to  breed  from  an  animal 
of  good  pedigree.  The  same  principles  apply  in  the  breeding  of  both 
plants  and  animals.  Well-bred  seed-corn  has  often  produced  from  five  to 
twenty  bushels  per  acre  more  than  seed  which  has  received  no  special 
attention  when  grown  under  identical  conditions.  A  bushel  of  seed-corn 
will  plant  six  acres;  10  bushels  increase  on  each  of  six  acres  equals  60 
bushels;  60  bushels  at  60  cents  per  bushel  equals  $36  the  value,  of  a 
bushel  of  good  seed. 

Securing  Seed. — Seed-corn  should  be  purchased  in  the  ear  so  the 
buyer  can  see  if  it  is  as  represented  in  regard  to  type,  size  and  uniformity. 
It  should  have  been  grown  on  soil  and  under  climatic  conditions  very 
similar  to  those  surrounding  the  purchaser.  Do  not  send  far  away  for 
seed-corn.  Many  farmers  have  done  so  and  have  generally  been  dis- 
appointed. 

Selecting  Seed. — Selection  should  be  made  in  the  field  where  both 
plant  and  ear  can  be  seen.  Seed  plants  should  be  under  normal  conditions 
relative  to  soil  and  stand.  Good  plants  should  be  of  moderate  height. 
Short  nodes  or  joints  are  preferable  to  long  ones,  for  each  node  bears  a 
leaf.  The  more  the  leaf  surface,  the  greater  the  power  of  the  plant  to 
manufacture  the  elements  of  the  air  and  soil  into  corn.  The  leaves  are 
the  most  palatable,  digestible  and  nutritious  part  of  the  forage.  The 
plants  should  be  free  from  smut,  rust  and  any  other  fungous  diseases. 

The  ears  for  a  medium  maturing  variety  of  dent  corn  should  be 
attached  to  the  stalk  at  a  convenient  height  of  about  four  feet,  and  by  a 
shank  of  moderate  length  and  thickness.  For  very  early  varieties  the 
ears  may  be  a  little  lower  and  for  large  late  maturing  ones,  there  will  be  no 
objection  to  having  the  ears  five  feet  above  the  ground.  When  the  shank 

*  Refer  to  Bulletin  No.  116,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


CORN 


55 


is  too  long  it  allows  the  ear  to  pull  the  stalk  over,  and  when  too  short  the 
ear  is  too  erect  and  may  be  damaged  at  the  tip  by  allowing  water  to  enter 
the  husks.  The  husks  should  be  moderate  in  amount  and  sufficiently 
long  to  cover  the  tip  of  the  ear  and  protect  the  kernels  from  insects,  birds 
and  damage  by  rain. 

The  size  of  the  ear  will  vary  in  different  districts,  but  for  a  medium 
maturing  variety  a  good  seed  ear  should  be  8  to  10  inches  long.  The 
circumference  two-fifths  the  distance  from  the  butt  should  equal  three- 
fourths  but  not  exceed  four-fifths  of  the  length.  The  form  should  be 
cylindrical  or  but  slightly  tapering  from  butt  to  tip.  The  tip  and  butt 
should  be  well  filled  with  kernels  and  the  rows,  16  to  20  in  number,  should 


HIGH  AND  Low  EARS.1 


be  straight  and  carry  out  well  to  the  butt  and  tip  with  kernels  of  regular 
and  uniform  shape. 

The  depth  of  kernels  should  equal  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  cob. 
Kernels  five-eighth  inch  long,  three-eighth  inch  wide  and  one-sixth  inch 
thick  are  a  good  size.  The  tips  should  be  strong  and  full,  for  such 
indicates  good  vitality.  The  embryo  or  germ  should  be  large  and  ex- 
tend well  up  toward  the  crown.  Large  embryos  produce  vigorous  plants 
and  indicate  high  fat  and  protein  content  and  consequently  high  feeding 
value. 

Care  of  Seed. — Seed-corn  should  be  well  cared  for  by  storing  in  a 
dry  and  well-ventilated  room  and  out  of  reach  of  rats  and  mice.  Corn, 
thoroughly  dried,  will  stand  a  very  low  temperature  without  injury,  but 

i  Courtesy  of  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  282,  "Corn  Experiments." 


56 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


if  not  well  dried,  a  temperature  not  far  below  freezing  will  injure  it 
and  destroy  its  vitality  or  germinating  power  and  make  it  worthless 
for  seed.  , 

Germination  Test. — The  importance  of  securing  a  perfect  stand  of 
strong  plants  in  the  cornfield  cannot  be  overestimated.  Aside  from  field 
conditions  favorable  to  germination  and  the  proper  placing  of  the  corn  in 
its  seed-bed,  there  are  two  dominant  factors  on  which  perfection  of  stand 
depends:  first,  the  vitality  of  the  seed;  second,  requisite  number  of 
kernels  in  each  hill  or  regular  and  uniform  spacing  if  planted  in  drills. 

A  vitality  or  germination  test  of  seed-corn  should  always  be  made. 
It  should  be  made  several  weeks  before  corn  is  required  for  planting, 
so  that  there  may  be  time  to  secure  a  new  supply  in  case  the  seed 

has  been  injured.  There  are  several 
simple  methods  of  making  such  tests, 
but  in  all  cases  every  ear  should  be 
tested. 

Germinating  Box. — A  box  about 
18  inches  square  and  3  inches  deep, 
two-thirds  full  of  clean  sawdust  or 
sand,  is  most  convenient  for  germi- 
nating corn.  The  material  should  be 
thoroughly  moistened  and  smoothed 
to  a  level  in  the  box.  Lay  the  ears  of 
corn  on  the  barn  floor,  tips  to  tips  in 
double  rows.  Number  every  tenth 
ear  with  a  small  paper  tag  stuck 
between  the  rows.  Remove  from 
various  parts  around  the  ear,  and  from 
butt  to  tip,  five  grains  from  each  ear. 
Now  cover  the  sawdust  in  the  box 

with  a  piece  of  white  cloth  marked  off  into  squares  1J  inches  on  a  side 
with  a  lead  pencil,  preferably  an  indelible  pencil,  and  numbered  consecu- 
tively. In  the  squares,  place  the  five  grains  from  each  ear  separately, 
exercising  care  that  the  grains  from,  each  ear  are  placed  in  the  square 
with  the  number  corresponding.  Cover  the  grains  thus  placed  with 
another  cloth  of  close  weave  or  a  fold  of  the  one  under  the  corn,  to  pre- 
vent the  sprouts  from  coming  through,  and  spread  over  all  a  piece  of 
burlap  or  a  gunny  sack  well  soaked  in  water.  The  requisites  for  germina- 
tion are  air,  warmth  and  moisture.  The  temperature  of  the  living  room  or 
kitchen  is  about  right,  providing  it  does  not  fall  below  55  degrees  at  night. 
If  the  temperature  is  favorable  germination  will  have  taken  place  in  four 
to  six  days.  Any  ear  failing  to  give  five  kernels  vigorously  germinated 
should  be  rejected.  A  handy  man,  working  systematically,  can  test  five 
or  six  bushels  of  corn  in  a  day.  It  is  work  that  should  never  be  neglected 


m  "m    A   "if  • 

11444 


GOOD  AND  POOR  TYPES  OF  KERNELS.1 

The  top  kernels  came  from  an  ear 
with  too  much  space  at  cob,  indicating 
low  yield,  poor  feeding  value,  immatur- 
ity. Compare  them  with  the  kernels 
in  the  bottom  row. 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Company,  Agricultural  Extension  Department. 


CORN  57 


and  will  pay  for  the  labor  involved  many  times  over  in  a  better  stand  and 
resulting  larger  yields  of  corn. 

Improvement  by  Selection  and  Breeding. — The  ear  row  method  is 
the  most  satisfactory  way  of  improving  corn  along  any  line.  This  method 
is  based  on  the  principle  that  like  begets  like,  but  fortunately  this  prin- 
ciple is  not  rigid.  It  is  the  variation  in  the  progeny  of  any  parent  plant  that 
enables  us,  through  selection,  to  improve  the  variety,  and  it  is  the  tendency 
for  like  to  produce  a  larger  percentage  of  progeny,  differing  but  slightly 
from  the  parent  that  enables  us  to  make  progress  in  plant  improvement. 

Corn  improvement  by  selection  is  easy,  because  the  plant  is  large 
and  its  characteristics  plainly  visible;  because  the  variations  are  suffi- 
ciently marked  and  frequent  to  enable  man  to  select  individuals  with 


A  GOOD  GERMINATION  Box  SEVEN  DAYS  AFTER  PLANTING.1 

The  box  is  filled  with  wet   sand  and  marked  into  checks  by  means  of  cord  stretched 
across  the  top  at  even  intervals. 

desirable  characteristics,  and  also  because  of  the  large  number  of  plants 
that  can  be  secured  from  the  individual  and  the  consequent  rapidity  of 
multiplication. 

Corn  breeding  is  somewhat  difficult  because  of  the  natural  cross- 
fertilization  and  the  impracticability  of  keeping  the  breed  pure,  and  also 
because  close  and  self-fertilization  are  difficulties  that  must  be  guarded 
against.  None  but  the  choicest  ears  selected  for  desirable  qualities  of 
both  ear  and  plant  should  be  used  in  the  breeding  plat,  and  any  ears  that 
do  not  show  a  high  standard  in  the  germination  test  should  be  rejected. 

The  selected  ears  should  next  be  tested  for  yield  and  prepotency. 
The  ears  should  be  numbered  and  a  portion  of  each  planted  in  a  separate 
row  of  a  test-plat  having  uniform  fertility.  The  rows  should  be  sufficiently 
long  to  contain  about  200  plants.  This  will  require  about  one-fourth  of 
the  kernels  of  each  ear.  The  rows  should  bear  the  same  numbers  as  ears 

1  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  409,  U  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


58  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

from  which  planted.  The  remaining  portion  of  ears,  with  numbers 
securely  fastened,  should  be  saved  for  next  year's  multiplying  plat.  When 
corn  is  up,  it  should  be  thinned  to  a  uniform  stand  for  all  rows.  It  should 
be  frequently  observed  during  growing  season  for  rows  that  develop 
desirable  characters.  At  harvest  time  each  row  should  be  husked  sepa- 
rately and  the  corn  weighed.  The  remnants  of  seed  ears,  from  which  a 
limited  number  of  the  highest  yielding  rows  of  best  type  were  planted, 
should  be  shelled  together  and  planted  the  following  year  in  a  multiplying 
plat  which  should  supply  seed  for  the  general  crop.  From  the  multiply- 
ing plat  should  be  selected  choice  ears  for  another  test  as  above  described. 
This  method  repeated  each  year  makes  progress  in  corn  improvement. 

REFERENCES 

"Corn  Crops."     Montgomery. 

"Book  of  Corn."     Myrick. 

"  Manual  of  Corn  Judging."     Shamel. 

"Study  of  Corn."     Shoesmith. 

Kansas  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  205.     "Growing  Corn  in  Kansas." 

North  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Circular  8.     "Home  Grown  Seed  Corn." 

Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  116.     "Corn  Growing  in  the  East." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  307.     "Tests  of  Corn  Varieties  on  the  Great  Plains." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  168.     "Grades  for  Commercial  Corn." 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

313.     "Corn — Harvesting  and  Storing." 

317.     "Increasing  Productiveness;"    "Shrinkage  of  Corn  in  Cribs." 

400.     "A  More  Profitable  Corn  Planting  Method." 

415.     "Seed  Corn." 

414.     "Corn  Cultivation." 

537.     "How  to  Grow  an  Acre  of  Corn." 

546.     "How  to  Manage  a  Corn  Crop  in  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia." 

553.  "Pop  Corn  for  the  Home." 

554.  "Pop  Corn  for  the  Market." 


CHAPTER  4 


WHEAT  (WINTER  AND  SPRING) 

BY  W.  H.  DARST 
Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Pennsylvania  State  College 

The  crop  that  furnishes  the  bread  material  of  a  country  comes  a 
little  closer  to  the  lives  of  the  people  than  any  other.  In  nearly  all  coun- 
tries of  the  world  wheat  holds  the  first  place  as  a  bread  crop,  and  for  that 
reason  deserves  most  careful  attention. 

The  United  States,  with  its  rapidly  increasing  population,  especially 
in  the  cities,  and  its  constantly  increasing  demand  for  breadstuffs,  may 
very  soon  find  it  necessary  to  import  wheat.  Under  existing  conditions 
the  price  of  wheat  must  increase  rather  than  decrease,  and  there  will  be 
more  and  more  inducement  for  the  farmer  to  increase  his  production. 

The  world's  annual  production  of  wheat  for  the  three  pre-war  years 
1912-14  was  approximately  3,882,255,000  bushels.  The  six  leading 
countries  in  production  and  in  average  acre  yield  were  as  follows: 


Average  Annual  Production,  ] 

912-1914. 

Average  Acre  Yield,  19O4-1913 

Country. 

Bushels. 

Country. 

Bushels. 

United  States 

794,889,000 

United  Kingdom  

32.8 

Europe  an  Russia. 

686  512  000 

30  7 

British  India  

349,273,000 

France  

20.1 

France 

325  650  000 

Austria-Hungary 

19  1 

Austria-Hungary 

226,732  000 

United  States 

14  3 

Canada 

205,718,000 

European  Russia 

10  0 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  two  largest  producing  countries 
have  the  lowest  acre  yields.  At  one  time  these  European  countries  had 
average  yields  very  similar  to  our  own.  By  years  of  systematic  applica- 
tion of  best  known  methods  of  production,  the  yields  of  these  countries 
have  increased  enormously. 

The  climatic  and  soil  conditions  of  some  European  countries  are 
more  favorable  to  the  production  of  wheat  than  those  in  the  United 
States.  In  European  countries,  also,  the  labor  proposition  is  not  so  serious 
as  it  is  in  this  country;  consequently,  they  can  afford  to  spend  more  tune 
on  their  wheat  crop. 

Wheat  Production  in  United  States. — About  one-half  the  wheat 
crop  of  the  United  States  is  produced  in  the  North  Central  states  west  of 

(59) 


60  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  Mississippi  River.  This  section  includes  the  states  of  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, North  and  South  Dakota,  Minnesota  and  Iowa.  Hard  winter 
wheat  andjiard  spring  wheat  (including  Durham)  are  grown  in  this  section. 

About  one-sixth  of  the  crop  is  produced  in  the  North  Central  states 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  wheat  in  this  section  is  known  as  the 
soft  or  red  winter  wheat. 

About  one-sixth  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  is  grown  in 
the  far  West.  This  includes  the  irrigated  districts  of  the  Rockies  and  the 
Pacific  Coast  wheat  districts.  White  and  red  spring,  and  some  winter 
wheat,  are  grown  in  this  section. 

All  other  states  not  in  the  general  districts  mentioned  produce 
approximately  100,000,000  bushels  annually. 

Climatic  and  Soil  Adaptation. — Wheat  has  a  very  wide  climatic 
adaptation,  which  makes  it  a  staple  crop  in  many  countries  of  the  world. 
Wheat  is  best  adapted,  however,  to  regions  having  cold  winters,  especially 
cool  weather  during  the  first  of  the  growing  season.  Cool  weather  during 
early  growth  causes  wheat  to  stool  more  abundantly,  which  generally 
results  in  a  larger  yield.  This  applies  to  spring  wheat  as  well  as  to  winter 
wheat. 

Climatic  conditions,  viz:  rainfall,  temperature,  sunshine  and 
humidity,  influence  the  milling  quality  of  wheat  to  a  greater  degree  than 
does  the  type  or  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  map,  roughly  dividing  the 
United  States  into  wheat  districts,  shows  that  climatic  conditions  existing 
in  any  section  determine  to  a  large  extent  the  milling  quality  of  the  wheat. 

In  the  hard  spring  and  hard  winter  wheat  districts,  the  season  is 
comparatively  hot  and  dry  during  the  fruiting  period,  forcing  early  ripen- 
ing of  the  wheat.  This  results  in  a  hard,  flinty  kernel,  high  in  protein 
and  of  good  milling  quality.  The  fruiting  period  being  shortened,  the 
wheat  does  not  have  the  opportunity  to  store  as  large  amounts  of  starch 
in  the  grain  as  it  would  under  more  favorable  climatic  conditions. 

Where  the  fruiting  season  is  longer  and  more  favorable,  as  in  the 
red  winter  wheat  district  and  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  more  starch  is 
stored  in  the  grain,  which  results  in  a  starchy,  light-colored  wheat  having 
lower  milling  quality. 

A  proper  soil  for  wheat  is  important  in  that  it  determines  the  yield 
rather  than  milling  quality.  A  large  portion  of  the  wheat  in  the  United 
States  is  grown  on  the  so-called  "  glacial  drift"  soils.  These  soils  vary 
greatly  in  texture  and  structure,  humus  and  plant  food.  The  clay  or 
clay  loam  uplands  are  usually  better  adapted  to  wheat  than  the  low- 
lying  dark-colored  loamy  soils.  Dark-colored  soils,  rich  in  humus,  are 
better  adapted  to  corn.  Wheat  grown  on  such  soil  is  apt  to  winter-kill 
and  heave  badly.  The  wheat  grows  tall  and  rank  and  may  not  fill  out 
properly. 

Rotations. — In  parts  of  the  Great  Plains  region,  wheat  is  grown 
in  continuous  culture  with  fair  returns,  because  the  farming  operations 


WHEAT 


61 


are  so  extensive.  Rotations,  therefore,  are  not  profitable  as  yet.  Even- 
tually these  large  farms  will  be  made  into  smaller  ones,  and  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  properly  rotate  the  crops  for  profitable  yields. 

Continuous  culture  of  wheat  not  only  reduces  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  but  multiplies  the  insects  and  fungous  diseases  injurious  to  wheat. 
Rotations  are  greatly  modified  in  different  localities  by  the  crop-pro- 
ducing power  of  the  soil  and  by  the  crops  produced.  Wheat  is  frequently 
grown  in  a  rotation  in  order  to  obtain  a  stand  of  grass.  The  value  of 


EFFECT  OF  TIME  OF  PREPARING  SEED  BED.    YIELD  OF  BAGGED  WHEAT.1 

rotations  from  the  economic  standpoint  has  been  discussed  in  a  previous 
chapter. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed-Bed. — The  method  used  in  preparing  a  seed- 
bed for  wheat  is  determined  by  the  rotation  and  kind  of  wheat  grown. 
In  winter  wheat  sections  wheat  may  follow  corn,  oats,  potatoes  or  tobacco. 
Wheat  requires  a  firm,  fine  and  moist,  seed-bed,  whether  it  be  sown  in  the 
fall  or  spring.  When  wheat  follows  corn,  potatoes  or  tobacco,  the  ground 
should  be  thoroughly  plowed  for  these  crops  in  the  spring  of  the  year, 
and  the  crop  grown  should  receive  thorough  and  regular  cultivation  as 
long  as  possible.  After  the  crop  is  harvested  double  disking  should  put 
the  ground  in  ideal  shape  for  the  seeding  of  wheat. 

When  winter  wheat  follows  oats  the  stubble  should  be  plowed  as 
early  as  possible.  The  early  breaking  of  oat  stubble  gives  more  time 

1  Courtesy  of  Kansas  Ajpicultural  Experiment  Station. 


62 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


for  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  the  firming  of  the  soil  and  the  conserv- 
ing of  moisture. 

If  plowing  is  done  late  in  the  season,  each  day's  work  should  be 
harrowed  as  soon  as  finished.  Plowed  ground  that  is  allowed  to  remain 
a  few  days  before  working  is  likely  to  become  very  dry  and  cloddy.  A 
well  prepared  seed-bed  insures  quick  germination,  a  good  root  system 
and  results  in  less  pulling  and  winter  killing. 

The  following  table  taken  from  Bulletin  No.  185  of  the  Kansas 
Experiment  Station,  shows  that  yield  of  wheat  is  greatly  influenced  by 
both  the  time  and  method  of  preparing  the  seed-bed: 

METHODS  OF  PREPARING  LAND  FOR  WHEAT.     CROPPED  TO  WHEAT  CONTINUOUSLY. 

Average  3  Years,  1911-1913. 


Method  of  Preparation. 

Yield  per 

Acre, 
bushels. 

Cost  per 
Acre  for 
Preparation. 

Value  of  Crop, 
Less  Cost  of 
Preparation. 

Disked  not  plowed 

6  63 

$2   07 

$3  64 

Plowed  Sept.  15  3  inches  deep 

13  24 

2   83 

8  35 

Plowed  Sept.  15,  7  inches  deep  .       

14  15 

3  33 

8  60 

Plowed  Aug.  15,  7  inches  deep         

22.19 

4  00 

16  34 

Plowed  Aug.  15,  7  inches  deep.     Not  worked 
until  Sept.  15  

20.48 

3  33 

13  65 

Plowed  July  15,  3  inches  deep  

20.77 

4.85 

12  25 

Plowed  July  15,  7  inches  deep  

27.11 

5.35 

16.87 

Double  disked  July  15.     Plowed  Sept.  15  

19.71 

3.93 

12.37 

Double  disked  July  15.    Plowed  Aug.  15,  7  inches 
deep  

23.40 

4.93 

14.30 

Listed  July  15,  5  inches  deep.     Ridges  split  Aug. 

22  90 

3  92 

14  73 

Listed  July  15,  5  inches  deep.     Worked  down  

22.77 

4.05 

14.53 

Early  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  gave  a  profitable  increase  in  yields. 
Early  disking  of  the  stubble,  and  plowing  later,  also  gave  very  good 
returns.  The  possible  objection  to  early  plowing  (July  15th  to  August 
15th)  is  the  lack  of  labor  and  teams  at  this  time.  In  this  case  the  stubble 
may  be  disked  early  and  plowed  later  when  work  is  less  pressing.  Disking 
a  stubble  before  plowing  tends:  (1)  to  conserve  moisture,  (2)  to  kill  weeds, 
(3)  to  lessen  the  draft  and  cost  of  plowing  the  land,  (4)  to  pulverize  that 
portion  of  the  seed-bed  that  eventually  will  be  turned  under,  and  (5) 
to  aid  in  destroying  the  Hessian  fly. 

In  the  semi-arid  districts  of  the  United  States  the  lister  is  often  used 
in  preparing  the  seed-bed  for  wheat.  The  lister  leaves  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  in  ridges,  however,  and  should  not  be  used  year  after  year  in  the 
preparation  of  the  soil. 

Fertilizers  for  Wheat. — A  detailed  discussion  of  fertilizers  has  been 
given  in  a  previous  chapter.  Two  methods  of  supplying  plant  food  to 


WHEAT 


63 


the  wheat  crop  are:    (1)  by  the  application  of  barnyard  manure,  and  (2) 
by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

Where  clover  or  grass  is  followed  by  corn  in  a  rotation,  better  returns 
are  obtained  from  manure  when  placed  on  the  sod  and  plowed  under 
for  corn.  For  soils  low  in  plant-food  and  humus,  manure  may  be  applied 
profitably  to  the  wheat  crop.  Unless  the  ground  is  too  rolling  the  manure 


APPROXIMATE  DATE  OF  SEEDING  WINTER  WHEAT.1 

should  be  applied  to  the  wheat  as  a  top  dressing  before  seeding  rather 
than  plowed  under,  or  it  may  be  applied  after  seeding.  Soluble  plant- 
food  from  the  manure  will  leach  down  into  the  soil  and  the  strawy  remains 
will  act  as  a  mulch  during  the  winter. 

The  needs  of  the  soil  upon  which  the  wheat  crop  is  to  be  grown  will 
determine  the  proportion  of  different  plant-food  elements  to  be  used. 
The  intelligent  use  of  fertilizers  for  wheat  calls  for  a  knowledge  of  the 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


64  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

needs  of  the  soil.  This  may  be  ascertained  partly  by  knowing  the  previous 
treatment  of  the  soil  and  by  studying  the  appearance  of  the  crops  now 
growing  upon  it.  More  definite  information  may  be  secured  by  the  use 
of  different  fertilizing  elements  on  small  plafs  conducted  as  a  test  during 
one  or  more  years  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  needs  of  the  soil. 

Phosphorus  is  the  element  most  often  needed  on  ordinary  wheat 
soils  of  most  northern  states,  and  is  the  one  that  usually  gives  the  greatest 
increase  in  yields.  In  many  localities  the  yield  may  be  further  increased 
by  the  addition  of  small  to  moderate  amounts  of  potash.  In  many  cases, 
some  nitrogen  will  produce  still  further  increase.  However,  it  is  poor 
policy  to  pay  18  cents  a  pound  for  nitrogen  that  can  be  produced  more 
cheaply  on  the  farm  by  the  use  of  various  leguminous  crops  in  the  rotation. 

Time  of  Seeding. — The  time  to  seed  wheat  in  a  given  section  will  be 
determined  largely  by  previous  experience.  The  latitude,  season,  soil 
conditions  and  insect  enemies  all  help  determine  the  proper  time  for 
seeding. 

The  chart  on  preceding  page  prepared  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  gives  the  approximate  date  of  seeding  winter  wheat, 
where  the  Hessian  fly  must  be  considered  as  a  factor. 

Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  prepared 
properly.  Early  seeding  insures  cool  weather  during  the  early  growth 
and  permits  the  crop  to  ripen  before  the  severe  storms  of  late  summer. 
Wheat  is  generally  seeded  with  a  grain  drill,  although  broadcasting  is 
still  practiced  is  some  parts  of  the  far  West. 

Rate  of  Seeding. — The  rate  of  seeding  varies  greatly  in  different 
wheat  districts  of  the  United  States.  East  of  the  Mississippi  River  two 
bushels  of  well-cleaned  seed  will  generally  give  the  best  results.  Results 
by  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  located  near  the  center  of  the  humid 
region,  teach  a  valuable  lesson  on  this  point. 

THICK  AND  THIN  SEEDING  OF  WHEAT.     TEN  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES  USED. 
SIXTEEN- YEAR  AVERAGE.* 

3  pecks  per  acre 20.26  bushels  per  acre 

4  '  .  21.64 


5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 


22.97 
24.11 
24.36 
25.01 
25.46 
25.43 


In  the  dry  farming  area  of  the  West  the  amount  of  seed  required  ranges 
from  two  to  three  pecks  in  the  driest  sections  to  six  or  eight  pecks  in  the 
more  humid  sections.  The  rate  of  seeding  for  any  section  should  be 
determined  by  actual  tests. 

Wheat  should  not  be  covered  too  deeply.  The  depth  of  seeding  will 
depend  on  the  type  of  soil  and  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed.  The 

*  Taken  from  records  of  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 


WHEAT  65 


usual  depth  of  drilling  is  from  two  to  three  inches.  To  secure  ideal  con- 
dition for  germination  the  seed  should  be  placed  in  the  drill  furrow  on 
firm,  damp  soil,  which  will  supply  moisture  for  rapid  germination  and  the 
development  of  roots. 

Grain  Drills. — For  general  use  a  good  single-disk  drill  does  very  good 
work.  On  stony,  trashy  land  it  does  better  work  than  double-disk  or  shoe 
drills.  In  the  absence  of  trash  and  on  a  well-prepared  seed-bed,  the  shoe 
drill  is  more  readily  regulated  to  a  uniform  depth  of  seeding.  The  press 
drills  are  preferred  for  use  in  light,  droughty  soils  and  drier  climates. 

Winter  Killing. — Winter  killing  of  wheat  is  a  source  of  great  loss 
throughout  the  winter  wheat  districts  of  the  United  States.  Winter 
killing  may  be  due  to:  (1)  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  wet  soils, 
which  gradually  lifts  the  plants,  exposing  and  breaking  the  roots;  (2) 
weak  plants,  resulting  from  late  sowing,  lack  of  moisture  or  freezing  in  a 
dry,  open  winter;  (3)  smothering  of  the  plants  under  a  heavy  covering 
of  ice  and  sleet.  A  heavy  growth  of  early  seeded  wheat  is  more  apt  to 
smother  than  that  sown  later.  When  unfavorable  weather  conditions 
exist,  very  little  can  be  done  to  prevent  winter  killing.  However,  pre- 
ventive measures  such  as  the  following  are  advised:  (1)  Grow  a  hardy 
variety  of  wheat;  (2)  drain  wet  spots  in  the  wheat  field;  (3)  thoroughly 
prepare  the  seed-bed;  (4)  sow  seed  early  enough  to  secure  strong,  vigorous 
plants;  (5)  roll  wheat  that  is  pulled  by  freezing  and  thawing.  Rolling 
early  in  the  spring  firms  the  soil  about  the  roots  and  benefits  the  wheat 
if  the  pulling  has  not  progressed  too  far. 

Wheat  Districts. — The  United  States  may  be  divided  into  five  wheat 
districts  according  to  the  color  and  composition  of  the  grain.  These  dis- 
tricts are  not  sharply  defined,  but  a  brief  outline  of  them  should  give  the 
reader  a  better  idea  of  the  kind  of  wheat  grown,  the  leading  varieties  and 
the  milling  qualities  of  the  wheat  in  the  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 

District  No.  1. — All  wheat  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  is  known  as 
Red  Winter,  or  soft  winter  wheat.  It  varies  in  color  from  white  to  red 
and  amber.  The  quality  of  this  wheat  varies  from  medium  in  the  northern 
part  to  poor  in  the  southern  part  of  the  district.  The  leading  varieties 
in  the  northern  portion  are  Fulcaster,  Pool,  Dawson's  Golden  Chaff, 
Gypsy,  Harvest  King,  Fultz,  Rudy  and  Michigan  Amber.  In  the  southern 
portion  the  leading  varieties  are  Fulcaster,  Pool,  Purple  Straw,  Bluestone 
and  Mediterranean. 

District  No.  2. — The  hard  spring  wheat,  including  Durham,  is  located 
in  the  Dakotas,  Minnesota  and  parts  of  Nebraska,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin. 
The  wheat  in  this  district  is  small  and  shriveled  in  kernel,  hard  and  dark 
in  color.  The  milling  quality  of  hard  spring  wheat  is  excellent.  The 
principal  varieties  are  Bluestem,  Velvet  Chaff,  Fife  and  Durham  (Kur- 
banka  and  Arnautha). 

District  No.  3. — The  hard  winter  district  includes  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Oklahoma,  Iowa  and  Missouri.  The  wheat  in  this  district  is  red  to  amber 


66 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


in  color.  The  grain  is  hard  and  flinty,  but  larger  and  plumper  than  the 
hard  spring.  The  milling  quality  of  the  wheat  is  excellent,  although 
the  quality  of  the  gluten  is  not  as  high  as  in  the  hard  spring  wheat.  The 
principal  varieties  grown  are  the  Turkey  and  Kharkof . 

District  No.  4. — White  soft  or  Pacific  Coast  wheat,  grown  mostly 
in  California,  is  soft  and  starchy,  and  yellow  to  red  in  color.  The  milling 
quality  varies  from  fair  to  poor.  For  bread  purposes  this  wheat  must  be 
blended  with  the  hard  wheats.  The  wheat  in  this  district  is  classed  as  soft 
winter  on  the  market.  The  leading  varieties  are  White  Australian, 
Sonora,  Club,  King's  Early  and  Early  Baart. 


WHEAT  DISTRICTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


District  No.  5. — The  medium  hard  spring  and  winter  wheat  is  grown 
in  the  extreme  Northwest,  Washington,  Oregon  and  Idaho.  The  wheat 
in  this  section  is  medium  in  quality,  much  of  it  having  a  bleached,  dull 
appearance.  The  principal  varieties  of  winter  wheat  are  Forty  Fold, 
Red  Russian  and  Jones'  Winter  Fife.  Bluestem  is  the  leading  spring 
variety. 

Wheat  Improvement. — Every  wheat  grower  should  ascertain,  by 
test  or  otherwise,  the  variety  best  suited  to  his  conditions.  The  variety 
tests  at  the  nearest  experiment  station  will  generally  indicate  the  best 
varieties  for  similar  conditions.  For  a  community  located  on  soil  different 
from  that  of  the  nearest  experiment  station,  an  ideal  plan  is  to  organize 
a  community  seed  association.  A  variety  test  of  wheat  should  be  con- 


WHEAT  67 


ducted  on  some  central  farm.  After  the  best  variety  is  determined,  the 
farmers  of  that  community  will  find  it  advantageous  if  all  grow  the  same 
variety  of  wheat.  The  advantages  of  such  a  plan  will  be:  (1)  larger 
yields  for  all;  (2)  better  and  more  uniform  quality,  resulting  in  higher 
prices;  (3)  the  production  of  pure  seed,  true  to  name;  and  (4)  the  pro- 
viding of  a  better  opportunity  to  improve  the  variety.  When  farmers 
of  a  community  are  all  interested  in  one  variety  of  wheat,  they  will  naturally 
be  interested  in  its  improvement. 

The  so-called  "mass  selection"  will  be  found  both  practical  and  profit- 


A  PROFITABLE  YIELD  OF  WHEAT.* 

able  in  improving  a  variety  of  wheat.  The  procedure  is  as  follows:  A 
field  of  good  wheat  is  examined  at  harvest  time  and  enough  of  the  choicest 
heads  are  selected  to  make  a  bushel  or  more  of  seed.  This  is  threshed  by 
hand  and  carefully  stored  until  seeding  time.  This  selected  seed  should 
be  sown  in  a  marked  portion  of  the  general  wheat  field.  At  harvest  time 
choice  heads  are  again  hand  selected  from  this  special  plat.  The  remain- 
ing wheat  is  harvested  for  seed  to  be  multiplied  for  the  general  field  wheat. 
By  continuing  this  process  of  selection  each  year  there  will  be  a  tendency 
to  improve  the  variety  continually,  or  at  least  to  eliminate  all  danger  of 
the  wheat  running  out. 


1  Courtesy  of  Penn  State  Farmer,  State  College,  Pa. 


68 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Harvesting. — Wheat  is  generally  harvested  as  soon  as  ripe.  The 
straw  should  be  yellow  in  color  and  the  grain  in  hard  dough,  before  the 
wheat  may  be  safely  harvested.  In  the  wheat-growing  section  along 
the  Pacific  Coast  the  wheat  is  allowed  to  stand  a  week  or  two  after  it  is 
ripe,  and  is  then  harvested  with  a  combined  harvester  and  thresher. 

Wheat  should  be  shocked  the  same  day  it  is  cut.  Considerable 
starch  is  transferred  from  the  leaves  and  stems  to  the  grain  after  the  wheat 
is  harvested.  Immediate  shocking  of  the  grain  prevents  rapid  drying 
and  aids  this  action. 

When  not  to  be  threshed  from  the  shock,  wheat  should  be  hauled 
in  and  stacked  or  stored  in  the  barn  as  soon  as  possible  (a  week  or  ten 
days).  Hot  sun  bleaches  wheat  rapidly;  rainy  weather  often  damages 
and  sometimes  destroys  the  crop  in  the  shock.  In  the  eastern  United 
States  threshing  generally  takes  place  in  the  barn  in  the  late  fall.  In  the 
corn  belt  section  and  Great  Plains  region  most  of  the  wheat  is  threshed 
out  of  the  shock  or  in  the  field  by  a  combine. 

Threshed  wheat  should  be  stored  in  tight,  clean  granaries.  When 
it  is  to  remain  in  storage  for  some  time  the  granary  should  be  cleaned 
thoroughly  to  make  sure  of  the  removal  of  grain  moths,  weevils  and  fungous 
diseases.  If  the  granary  is  constructed  so  as  to  keep  out  vermin  and 
insects,  there  is  practically  no  loss  of  weight  in  storage. 

Cost  of  Producing  Wheat — The  fixed  charges  of  growing  an  acre  of 
wheat  are  about  the  same,  whether  the  yield  is  15  bushels  or  30  bushels 
per  acre.  VA  rough  estimate  of  the  cost  of  growing  wheat  in  the  United 
States  is  between  $10  and  $12  per  acre.  The  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  has  secured  from  many  farmers  itemized  estimates  of  the 
cost  of  producing  wheat  in  all  of  the  states.  Those  for  a  few  of  the  widely 
separated  states  are  as  follows: 


Pennsyl- 
vania. 

South 
Carolina. 

North 
Dakota. 

Illinois. 

Kansas. 

Plowing  .  .  . 

$3  80 

$1   46 

$1    95 

$2  01 

$1    81 

Seed  

1  94 

1  36 

1  31 

1  50 

1  22 

Planting  

60 

89 

44 

35 

41 

Harvesting 

1  79 

1  23 

1  03 

1  19 

1   4Q 

Threshing  .  .  . 

1  60 

1  33 

1  60 

1  46 

1  44 

Rent  

3  50 

3  03 

2  22 

5  33 

3  41 

Fertilizer  

2  83 

2  66 

06 

27 

06 

Miscellaneous  

62 

35 

38 

43 

45 

Total  

$16  68 

$12  31 

$8  99 

$12  54 

$10  29 

Cost  per  bushel  

84 

96 

62 

64 

63 

Net  profit  per  acre  

3  42 

3  85 

4  87 

6  41 

5  66 

Number  of  reports  

131 

40 

177 

256 

309 

The  estimated  cost  in  Kansas  was  based  on  the  reports  of  309  farmers 
who,  during  the  year  1909,  secured  an  average  yield  of  16,3  bushels  per 


WHEAT  69 


acre.  This  is  representative  of  Districts  2  and  3  that  produce  one-half  of 
the  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  average  acre  yield  in  the 
United  States  is  14.8  bushels.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  little  profit 
in  raising  less  than  15  bushels  to  the  acre. 

Enemies  of  Wheat :  Weeds,  Insects  and  Fungous  Diseases. — Weeds, 
common  in  wheat  fields,  are  not,  as  a  rule,  difficult  to  eradicate.  Weeds 
damage  wheat  by  reducing  the  yield  and  by  injuring  the  milling  quality 
of  the  grain.  The  weeds  most  objectionable  in  wheat  are  garlic,  cockle, 
cheat  or  chess,  wild  oats  and  wild  mustard.  These  are  usually  controlled 
by  proper  cleaning  of  the  seed  wheat,  by  carefully  preparing  the  seed-bed 
and  by  a  suitable  rotation  of  crops. 

Insects. — The  Hessian  fly  and  chinch  bug  are  probably  the  most 
destructive  of  wheat  insects.  The  methods  of  control  are  preventive  for 
the  most  part.  The  burning  over  of  stubble  land  any  time  from  harvest 
to  the  middle  of  August  will  destroy  many  of  the  Hessian  flies  and  chinch 
bugs.  The  planting  of  trap  crops  also  will  aid  in  reducing  Hessian  fly 
trouble.  A  strip  of  wheat  sown  early  in  August  will  induce  the  fly  to  lay 
eggs.  This  wheat  should  be  carefully  plowed  down  after  the  first  frost, 
so  as  to  destroy  the  fly.  Often  an  early  strip  of  wheat  may  be  plowed 
down  in  time  for  proper  preparation  and  reseeding. 

A  stinging  frost  will  kill  the  adult  Hessian  fly.  If  the  season  is  not 
too  backward  it  is  well  to  delay  seeding  of  wheat  until  this  time.  How- 
ever, wheat  should  be  seeded  early  enough  to  become  rooted  before  winter 
sets  in. 

A  patch  of  millet  sown  early  in  the  spring  will  attract  many  of  the 
chinch  bugs,  thus  keeping  them  out  of  the  wheat  and  corn. 

The  common  insects  of  the  granary  are  the  granary  weevil  (Colandra 
granaria)  and  the  Angoumois  moth  (Sitotroga  cerealella).  Both  these 
insects  multiply  rapidly  and  should  be  attended  to  at  once. 

Used  granaries  should  always  be  cleaned  thoroughly  before  the  new 
wheat  is  stored.  Granaries  should  be  repaired  when  needed  so  as  to  make 
the  sides  and  floor  as  tight  as  possible. 

Fumigation  should  be  resorted  to  when  insects  first  appear.  Carbon 
bisulphide  is  a  very  effective  chemical  to  use  in  a  good  tight  granary. 
One  and  one-half  pints  to  one  ton  of  grain,  or  1000  cu.  ft.  of  space,  is  the 
recommended  amount  to  use.  The  liquid  should  be  poured  into  shallow 
pans  and  placed  over  the  wheat.  For  the  best  results  fumigation  should 
be  repeated  in  two  weeks'  time.  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  used  in  elevators 
and  mills,  but  would  be  very  dangerous  in  the  ordinary  barn  where  live- 
stock is  housed. 

Fungous  Diseases. — Rust  and  smut  are  perhaps  the  most  destructive 
among  wheat  diseases.  There  is  no  known  remedy  for  rust  other  than 
the  growing  and  breeding  of  rust-resistant  varieties  of  wheat.  Stinking 
smut  may  destroy  as  much  as  10  per  cent  of  the  total  wheat  crop  of  the 
United  States.  It  does  not  change  the  general  appearance  of  the  wheat 


70  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

head  while  in  the  field,  but  develops  within  the  kernel  as  the  wheat  ripens. 
At  threshing  time  the  infected  kernels  may  be  broken,  exposing  a 
black,  stinking,  greasy  mass  of  smut  spores.  The  handling  of  smutty 
wheat  aids  in  the  infecting  of  all  sound  wheat  that  comes  in  contact  with 
it.  The  smut  spores  adhere  to  the  outside  of  the  kernel  until  it  is  planted. 
The  fungus  grows  within  the  wheat  plant  and  finally  takes  possession  of 
the  newly  formed  berry.  Stinking  smut  can  be  controlled  by  the  formalde- 
hyde treatment. 

Treatment. — One  pint  of  40  per  cent  formaldehyde  is  added  to  40 
gallons  of  water.  This  is  sufficient  to  treat  40  bushels  of  wheat.  The 
wheat  should  be  spread  on  a  good  tight  floor  and  sprinkled  with  the 
solution.  The  wheat  should  then  be  shoveled  over  until  the  grain  is  well 
moistened,  after  which  it  should  be  shoveled  into  a  pile  or  ridge  and  covered 
with  canvas  for  several  hours.  The  wheat  should  then  be  spread  out  on 
the  floor  to  dry.  The  kernels  will  absorb  water  and  become  larger.  If 
seeding  takes  place  before  the  wheat  is  thoroughly  dry,  one-fifth  to  one- 
fourth  more  seed  to  the  acre  is  sown  than  when  untreated  seed  is  used. 

Loose  smut  is  less  injurious  to  wheat  then  the  hidden  or  stinking 
smut,  but  is  more  difficult  to  treat  and  control.  It  destroys  the  head  in 
the  field,  leaving  the  bare  rachis  as  evidence  of  its  presence.  The  mature 
spores  are  scattered  by  the  wind.  If  they  gain  entrance  to  the  growing 
berry  in  the  head,  they  germinate  and  send  mycelium  into  its  tissues  to 
await  the  time  when  the  wheat  is  sown  in  the  ground.  The  formalin 
treatment,  which  simply  acts  on  the  outside  of  the  berry,  is  ineffective. 

The  hot-water  treatment  is  recommended  for  the  loose  smut  of  wheat. 
This  treatment  requires  careful  and  painstaking  work,  and  is  not  practical 
for  large  quantities  of  seed.  A  small  quantity  of  seed  should  be  treated 
and  sown  in  a  separate  plot  to  be  used  for  seed  purposes  the  following 
year,  thus  eliminating  the  smut. 

Treatment.' — The  equipment  required  for  the  hot-water  treatment  is 
as  follows:  3  large  kettles,  1  tub,  several  wire  baskets  holding  about  1 
peck  of  grain,  and  1  good  thermometer.  The  seed  wheat  should  be  soaked 
several  hours  in  cold  water  placed  in  tub.  The  water  in  kettle  No.  1  is 
heated  to  127°  F.,  and  in  kettle  No.  2  to  130°  F.  This  can  be  done  by 
heating  water  in  the  extra  kettle  and  regulating  to  the  required  tempera- 
ture the  water  in  kettles  No.  1  and  2.  A  wire  basket  should  be  filled 
with  wheat  from  the  tub  of  cold  water,  allowed  to  drain,  and  immersed 
in  kettle  No.  1  for  two  minutes.  It  should  then  be  taken  out  and 
immersed  in  kettle  No.  2  for  ten  minutes,  after  which  the  wheat  should  be 
spread  out  to  dry.  This  treatment  frequently  kills  a  small  percentage 
of  the  kernels,  the  amount  of  which  should  be  determined  so  as  to  regulate 
the  proper  rate  of  seeding.  A  germination  test  is  therefore  advised  before 
seeding. 


WHEAT  71 


REFERENCES 

"Book  of  Wheat."     Donalinger. 

"Wheat."     Ten  Eyck. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 
320.     "Quality  in  Wheat." 
534.     "Durum  Wheat." 

596.     "Winter  Wheat  Culture  in  Eastern  States." 
616.     "Winter  Wheat  Varieties  for  Eastern  States." 
678.     "Growing  Hard  Spring  Wheat." 
680.     "Varieties  of  Hard  Spring  Wheat." 


CHAPTER   5 
OATS,  BARLEY  AND  RYE 


OATS 

As  a  farm  crop  in  North  America,  oats  rank  fifth  in  value.  It  has 
a  short  season  of  growth,  is  easily  raised  by  extensive  methods  and  brings 
quick  returns.  It  is,  therefore,  a  popular  crop,  especially  with  the  tenant 
farmer.  The  yield  and  cash  value  per  acre  is  low  compared  with  the  best 
oat-producing  countries  of  Europe,  and  some  question  the  advisability^ 
of  continuing  its  cultivation  so  extensively  in  this  country. 

Oats  fit  into  the  general  crop  rotation  and  follow  corn  better  than 
most  other  crops.  In  the  North  Central  states  it  is  extensively  used  as 
a  crop  in  which  to  seed  the  clovers  and  grasses.  It  makes  a  desirable 
feed  for  all  classes  of  livestock  except  swine,  and  is  highly  prized  for 
horses.  The  straw  is  valuable  as  roughage  and  as  an  absorbent  in  stables 
and  has  considerable  fertilizing  value. 

The  average  acreage,  yield,  production  and  value  of  oats  in  the  United 
States  for  ten  years  ending  1914  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

AVERAGE  ANNUAL  ACREAGE,  PRODUCTION  AND  FARM  VALUE  AND  MEAN  ACRE 

YIELD  OF  OATS  IN  THE  TEN  STATES  OF  LARGEST  PRODUCTION  FOR 

THE  TEN  YEARS  FROM  1905  TO  1914. 


Area, 
acres. 

Mean  Yield 
per  Acre, 
bushels. 

Production, 
bushels. 

Farm  Value, 
December  1. 

Iowa  

4,581,000 

31.9 

146,618,000 

$48,182,000 

Illinois  

4,160,000 

31.2 

130,096,000 

46,920,000 

Minnesota  

2,697,000 

30.8 

84,739,000 

27,526,000 

Wisconsin 

2  337  000 

32  5 

73,386,000 

29,202,000 

Nebraska  . 

2,373,000 

25  3 

59,384,000 

19,938,000 

Ohio  

1,636,000 

32  4 

53,581,000 

20,881,000 

Indiana  

1,719,000 

29  0 

49,887,000 

18,018,000 

North  Dakota  

1,737,000 

27.7 

48,233,000 

15,233,000 

Michigan 

1  424  000 

30  8 

43  704  000 

17  327  000 

New  York 

1  268  000 

31  5 

39  973  000 

18  761,000 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — In  the  production  of  oats,  favorable 
climate  and  cultural  conditions  are  more  important  than  the  character 
and  fertility  of  the  soil.  They  do  best  in  a  cool,  moist  climate.  In  North 
America  oats  succeed  best  in  Canada  and  those  states  of  the  Union  lying 
next  to  the  Canadian  border.  The  acreage  of  spring  oats  below  38  degrees 
north  latitude  is  very  small.  Oats  require  an  abundance  of  water  and 
loam,  and  clay  loam  soils  are  generally  best  adapted  to  them. 

(72) 


OATS,    BARLEY    AND    RYE 


73 


Classes  and  Varieties. — Oats  are  divided  into  spring  and  winter  oats. 
By  far  the  larger  proportion  in  North  America  belongs  to  the  former  class. 
Spring  oats  are  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  those  having  open  pan- 
icles and  those  with  closed  panicles.  By  far  the  larger  number  of  varieties 
falls  into  the  first  class.  They  are  further  classified  by  color  into  white, 
yellow,  black,  red  and  shades  of  black  and  red.  They  are  also  divided 
according  to  time  of  maturity  into  early,  medium  and  late  varieties.  The 
time  for  maturity  ranges  from  90  days  to  140  days.  In  the  Central  states 
in  favorable  seasons  early  oats  should  ripen  in  90  days  from  time  of  seeding. 

The  accompanying  map  shows  the  three  oat  districts  of  the  United 
States. 


MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  SHOWING  APPROXIMATELY  THE  AREAS  TO  WHICH 
CERTAIN  TYPES  OF  OATS  ARE  ADAPTED.1 

In  the  unshaded  portion  rather  late  maturing,  large-grained  white  oats  are 
usually  best;  in  the  lightly  shaded  portion  early,  small-grained,  yellow  varieties  are 
most  important;  while  in  the  heavily  shaded  portion  brownish-red  or  gray  varieties, 
which  in  the  warmer  sections  are  sown  in  the  fall,  are  most  certain  to  succeed. 

In  the  northern  district  the  medium-maturing  and  late-maturing 
varieties  generally  give  best  results.  The  leading  varieties  in  this  district 
are  American  Banner,  Big  4,  Clydesdale,  Lincoln,  Probstier,  Siberian, 
Silver  Mine,  Swedish  Select,  Tartarian,  Wide  Awake  and  White  Russian. 

In  the  central  region  the  principal  varieties  are  Big  4,  Burt,  Clydes- 
dale, Kherson,  Lincoln,  Red  Rust  Proof,  60-Day,  Silver  Mine,  Siberian 
and  Swedish  Select.  In  the  southern  district  the  chief  varieties  are  Burt 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  42^, 


74 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


and  Red  Rust  Proof,  together  with  Winter  Turf, 
winter  variety.  Burt  and  Red  Rust  Proof  may  be 
winter  or  spring. 

Seed  Oats  and  Their  Preparation  for  Seeding.- 


m ' 


Two  TYPES  OF  OAT  HE  ADS.  1 

Spreading,  or  panicled,  oats  (on  the  left) ;  side,  or  horse- 
mane,  oats  (on  the  right). 


which  is  a   strictly 
seeded  either  in  the 

—It  is  important  to 
seed  only  varieties 
that  are  adapted 
to  the  conditions 
that  prevail,  giv- 
ing particular  at- 
tention to  time  of 
maturity  as  re- 
lated to  the  pre- 
vailing climatic 
conditions  during 
the  oat -growing 
period.  Seed  oats 
should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  by 
the  use  of  a  good 
fanning  mill  be- 
fore seeding.  The 
screens  of  the  mill 
and  the  blast  of 
air  should  be  such 
as  to  remove  all 
foreign  seed,  hulls, 


and  small  oats. 
Frequently  one- 
quarter  or  one- 
third  of  the  oats 
may  be  removed 
in  this  way.  Such 
thorough  cleaning 
makes  for  a  uni- 
form stand  of  vig- 
orous plant  in  the 
field. 

If   there   is 
any  trouble  from 

smut,  seed  should  be  treated  with  formaldehyde;  one  pound  of  40  per 
cent  formaldehyde  to  45  gallons  of  water.  This  is  sufficient  for  treating 
about  45  bushels  of  oats.  The  solution  must  be  brought  in  contact 
with  every  berry  in  order  to  be  thoroughly  effective.  The  oats  may  be 

1  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  424,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


OATS,    BARLEY    AND    RYE  75 

spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  on  a  clean  floor  and  the  solution  applied  with 
a  sprinkling  can.  Several  thin  layers  of  oats  may  be  placed  one  on  top 
of  another,  and  each  sprinkled  in  this  way,  after  which  the  whole  pile 
should  be  thoroughly  stirred,  shoveled  into  a  compact  heap,  covered  with 
a  wet  blanket  and  allowed  to  remain  for  twelve  hours.  The  blanket 
should  then  be  removed  and  the  oats  spread  out  and  occasionally  stirred 
until  thoroughly  dry. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed-Bed. — A  large  portion  of  the  oats  grown  in 
the  corn  belt  are  seeded  on  corn  ground  without  any  preparation.  The 
ground  is  disked  and  harrowed,  or  sometimes  cultivated  once  or  twice 
after  seeding  the  oats.  It  is  much  better  to  double  disk  and  harrow  once 
before  seeding.  The  better  preparation  in  this  way  will  usually  more 
than  pay  for  the  increased  expense.  In  some  localities  shallow  plowing 
for  oats  may  prove  to  be  the  best  method  of  preparing  the  seed-bed.  When 
seeded  on  corn  land  the  stalks  should  be  broken  down.  This  is  most 
easily  accomplished  by  dragging  a  heavy  pole  or  iron  rail  broadside  across 
the  field  on  a  frosty  morning  when  the  ground  is  frozen.  A  mellow, 
loose  surface  soil  with  a  firm  subsoil  is  best  for  oats.  This  character  of 
seed-bed  is  secured  on  corn  land  by  the  methods  above  described. 

Fertilizers  and  Manures  for  Oats. — Over  most  of  the  spring  oat 
region  oats  are  grown  without  the  direct  application  of  either  manure 
or  fertilizers.  When  soils  call  for  manure  or  fertilizers  it  is  best  to  apply 
them  to  the  crop  preceding  oats.  In  this  way  the  oats  receive  only  the 
residual  effect,  but  this  generally  meets  the  needs  of  the  crop.  This  avoids 
the  danger  of  too  rank  a  growth  of  straw  that  is  likely  to  cause  oats  to 
lodge.  Oats  that  lodge  badly  are  not  only  difficult  to  harvest,  but  generally 
cause  a  failure  of  grass  and  clover  seeded  with  them  and  give  rise  to  a 
reduced  yield  of  grain.  On  soil  that  is  in  a  low  state  of  fertility,  or  which 
receives  no  manure  or  fertilizer  for  the  preceding  crop,  rather  light 
applications  of  either  manure  or  a  complete  fertilizer  may  be  applied  for 
oats  with  profit.  Experiments  show  that  phosphorus  is  the  most  impor- 
tant ingredient  to  be  applied.  Some  nitrogen,  preferably  in  an  immedi- 
ately available  form,  is  generally  advisable.  Nitrate  of  soda  at  the  rate 
of  75  to  100  pounds  per  acre  will  generally  fully  meet  the  needs  for  nitrogen. 
The  fertility  removed  by  oats  is  given  in  Table  II,  Part  III. 
Time,  Rate  and  Manner  of  Seeding. — The  time  of  seeding  will  vary 
with  the  season  and  locality,  but  generally  should  be  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  soil  conditions  will  permit  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed. 
Throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the  oat  region,  oats  are  seeded  during 
April.  Those  seeded  during  the  first  half  of  this  month  are  found  to  give 
larger  yields  than  those  seeded  during  the  last  half.  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  district,  seeding  in  March  usually  gives  good  results,  and  in  the 
Southern  states  seeding  may  take  place  much  earlier.  Oats  do  best  if 
they  can  make  the  major  portion  of  their  growth  during  the  cool  part  of 
the  season.  They  are  often  injured  by  a  short  hot  spell  as  they  near 


76  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

maturity.  Frosts  or  even  hard  freezes  after  they  are  seeded  seldom  do 
injury,  although  prolonged  wet  weather  immediately  following  seeding 
may  cause  the  seed  to  rot  in  the  soil  and  reduce  the  stand.  A  few  farmers 
in  the  Northern  states  are  now  seeding  ordinary  spring  oats  in  the  late  fall 
or  early  winter,  so  timing  the  seeding  that  the  oats  will  not  germinate 
until  spring.  This  method  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  and  farmers 
should  try  it  only  on  a  limited  scale  and  in  an  experimental  way  until  it  is 
demonstrated  to  be  satisfactory. 

The  rate  of  seeding  depends  on  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
soil,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  quality  of  the  seed,  the  size  of  the  grains 
and  the  manner  of  seeding.  Fertile  soils  require  less  seed  than  poor 
ones,  because  the  plants  tiller  more.  Abundance  of  seed  should  be  used 
on  weedy  land,  and  seed  broadcasted  should  be  used  more  freely  than 
when  it  is  drilled.  It  will  require  more  seed  of  the  large-grained  than  of 
the  small-grained  oats. 

In  general,  the  rate  of  seeding  ranges  from  8  to  12  pecks  per  acre, 
the  smaller  amount  being  used  when  drilled  and  the  larger  amount  when 
broadcasted.  At  several  state  experiment  stations  drilled  oats  have 
yielded  three  to  five  bushels  per  acre  more  than  oats  broadcasted  under 
identical  conditions.  Where  satisfactory  results  have  not  been  secured 
by  drilling  oats,  it  has  usually  been  attributable  to  covering  the  seed  too 
deeply.  Under  average  conditions  oats  should  be  covered  from  1  to  1J 
inches  in  depth,  although  in  very  loose  soils  or  in  a  dry  seed-bed,  deeper 
covering  will  be  satisfactory. 

Oats  as  a  Nurse  Crop. — Oats  are  frequently  used  as  a  nurse  crop  for 
clovers  and  grasses.  When  used  in  this  way  early  varieties  and  rather 
thin  seeding  is  advisable.  This  encourages  a  good  catch  and  stand  of 
the  clovers  and  grasses. 

Harvesting,  Shocking  and  Threshing. — Oats  should  be  harvested 
when  the  grain  is  in  the  hard  dough  stage.  If  allowed  to  become  fully 
ripe,  the  grain  shatters  badly  in  the  process  of  harvesting,  thus  causing 
considerable  loss.  When  cut  early  the  straw  will  have  a  higher  feeding 
value  than  when  allowed  to  fully  mature.  Any  shrinkage  in  grain  that  may 
take  place  as  a  result  of  cutting  early  will  be  more  than  offset  by  the  in- 
creased value  of  straw.  In  regions  where  the  straw  is  not  utilized  (and 
there  should  be  no  such  regions)  the  harvesting  should  be  carefully  timed 
in  order  to  secure  the  largest  possible  yield  and  yet  avoid  loss  of  grain. 

When  cut  rather  green  or  when  the  straw  is  damp,  or  when  the  oats 
are  foul  with  weeds  and  grass,  the  harvester  should  be  set  for  small 
bundles.  When  harvested  in  a  thoroughly  ripe  condition  the  bundles 
may  be  placed  into  shocks  immediately.  When  damp  or  green  it  is  gen- 
erally best  to  allow  the  bundles  to  lie  several  hours  before  shocking. 
When  the  oats  are  in  a  good,  dry  condition  round  shocks  with  a  cap  sheaf 
are  to  be  preferred.  Twelve  bundles  to  each  shock,  exclusive  of  the  cap 
sheaf,  is  the  best  number.  The  cap  sheaf  should  be  broken  near  the 


OATS,    BARLEY    AND    RYE 


band  and  the  heads  placed  toward  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind. 
Where  wind  storms  are  very  prevalent  at  this  time  of  the  year  it  is  best 
not  to  use  cap  sheaves.  When  oats  are  green  or  damp,  long  shocks,  made 
by  standing  the  sheaves  in  pairs  and  extending  north  and  south,  are  to 
be  preferred.  It  pays  to  have  the  grain  properly  shocked,  even  though 
it  is  to  be  threshed  in  a  short  time  and  directly  from  the  field. 

If  the  grain  is  to  be  stacked,  stacks  should  be  well  built.  Rails  or 
old  straw  should  be  used  for  the  foundation  to  prevent  damage  to  the  first 
layer  of  sheaves.  Stacks  may  be  either  round  or  long.  The  butts  should 


A  FIELD  OP  GOOD  OATS  BEING  HARVESTED  WITH  A  MODERN  SELF-BINDER. 

always  be  laid  toward  the  outside  of  the  stack,  and  the  outside  layer 
should  always  slope  downward  so  that  the  stack  will  turn  rain.  The 
greatest  diameter  of  the  stack  at  the  time  of  construction  should  be  five 
or  six  feet  above  the  ground.  This  form  in  settling  accentuates  the  slop- 
ing of  the  outside  sheaves  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  stack.  Whether 
oats  are  to  be  threshed  from  the  field  or  stack  will  be  determined  largely 
by  the  threshing  custom  of  the  locality.  Where  the  custom  of  threshing 
from  the  field  prevails,  it  will  be  difficult  to  get  stacked  oats  threshed 
until  field  threshing  is  completed.  Stacking  entails  some  additional  work, 
but  generally  improves  the  quality  of  the  oats.  Oats  in  the  shock  are 


78  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

often  badly  damaged  and  suffer  great  loss  from  rains.  This  is  largely 
obviated  by  stacking  as  soon  as  in  proper  condition. 

In  threshing,  the  concaves  of  the  machine  should  be  so  adjusted 
that  all  grain  will  be  separated  from  the  straw,  but  the  adjustment  should 
be  such  as  not  to  cause  serious  hulling  of  the  berries  or  undue  cutting  of 
the  straw.  Oats  are  easily  threshed  when  in  a  dry  condition.  The  straw 
at  threshing  time  should  be  either  carefully  stacked  or  run  directly  into 
a  hay-loft  or  storage-shed,  depending  on  facilities. 

Storing  and  Marketing.— The  threshed  grain  should  be  dry  when 
put  in  bins  and  should  be  kept  dry  by  adequate  protection  from  rains  or 
absorption  of  moisture  from  any  source.  Mustiness  lowers  the  feeding 
value  and  endangers  the  health  of  animals.  It  also  lowers  the  market 
value  of  the  grain.  Where  grain  weevils  and  other  insects  seriously  affect 
stored  grain,  tight  bins  which  can  be  fumigated  are  advisable.  Under 
favorable  conditions  oats  may  be  stored  for  a  considerable  time  with 
very  little  shrinkage  and  loss.  The  highest  market  price  generally  pre- 
vails during  the  early  part  of  the  year  and  just  prior  to  the  oat  harvest. 

Composition  and  Feeding  Value. — A  large  portion  of  the  oats  grown 
in  America  are  fed  to  livestock.  Limited  quantities  are  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  prepared  cereals.  Oats  are  high  in  protein  and  are  well 
adapted  for  work  horses  and  growing  animals.  They  are  especially 
desirable  because  of  the  hulls  which  they  contain,  and  which  dilute  the 
concentrate  to  about  the  right  extent  for  healthy  digestion.  They  are 
generally  fed  whole,  although  not  infrequently  are  they  chopped  and 
mixed  with  other  grains.  An  average  of  thirty  analyses  of  oats  gives 
13.3  per  cent  protein,  5.6  per  cent  fat  and  67.1  per  cent  carbohydrates,  as 
compared  with  11.8,  6.1  and  78.1  per  cent  for  those  respective  items  in 
corn. 

Value  of  Oats  for  Hay  and  Soiling  Purposes. — If  cut  when  the  grain 
is  in  the  milk,  oats  make  a  palatable  and  nutritious  hay,  especially  well 
suited  for  horses.  Oats  seeded  with  Canada  peas  make  a  good  hay  for 
milch  cows  and  other  cattle.  This  mixture  is  also  well  suited  for  soiling 
purposes  and  provides  an  early  soiling  crop.  By  seeding  at  different 
times  the  season  of  available  soiling  crops  from  this  source  may  be  con- 
siderably prolonged.  A  common  rate  of  seeding  this  mixture  is  1  bushel 
of  peas  to  1J  bushels  of  oats.  This  mixture  also  makes  good  pasture  for 
stock  of  all  kinds. 

Oat  Straw  and  its  Utilization. — Oat  straw  has  a  higher  feeding  value 
and  is  more  palatable  than  straw  from  the  other  grains.  It  is  quite  gen- 
erally used  for  feeding  horses  during  the  winter,  and  as  a  maintenance 
roughage  for  cattle  and  sheep.  Its  feeding  value  and  palatability  are 
best  when  the  grain  is  harvested  fairly  early  and  the  straw  is  secured 
without  damage  by  rains.  It  pays  to  store  it  carefully  and  utilize  it  for 
feed  as  fully  as  possible.  The  refuse  portion  makes  a  valuable  bedding 
and  the  straw  has  a  fertilizer  value  of  about  $3  per  ton. 


OATS,    BARLEY    AND    RYE  ,79 

Cost  of  Producing  Oats. — The  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  secured  estimates  from  about  5000 
farmers  in  all  parts  of  the  country  on  the  cost  of  producing  oats  in  1909. 
The  estimates  show  an  average  cost  of  $10.91  an  acre,  or  31  cents  a  bushel. 
On  the  same  farms  for  that  year  the  average  value  of  the  oat  crop  was 
$14.08  an  acre,  or  40  cents  a  bushel.  The  average  net  return  from  grain 
was  estimated  at  $3.17  an  acre,  to  which  was  added  the  value  of  by- 
product to  the  amount  of  $1.42,  making  an  average  total  profit  of  $4.59 
per  acre. 

Oat  Improvement. — The  improvement  of  this  crop  has  received 
much  less  attention  from  plant  breeders  and  farmers  than  has  corn  and 
wheat.  There  are,  however,  many  varieties  of  oats,  most  of  which  have 
originated  through  selection  and  breeding.  It  is  important  for  the  farmer 
to  secure  a  variety  well  suited  to  his  local  conditions,  and  to  improve  that 
variety  by  thorough  cleaning  and  grading  of  seed.  There  are  oppor- 
tunities, however,  for  improvement  by  selecting  exceptional  stools  of 
oats  and  threshing  these  by  hand  and  planting  each  in  a  separate  row. 
These  should  be  harvested  separately  and  the  best  ones  retained,  threshed 
and  used  for  seeding  longer  rows  the  following  year.  In  this  way  new 
strains  are  frequently  secured  that  are  superior  to  the  general  crop. 

BARLEY 

The  world's  production  of  barley  is  about  1,500,000,000  bushels,  of 
which  North  America  produces  one-seventh.  Of  this  the  United  States 
produces  166,000,000  and  Canada  48,000,000  bushels.  In  the  United 
States,  California,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  North  and  South  Dakota  lead 
in  barley  production.  These  five  states  produce  73  per  cent  of  all  the 
barley  grown  in  the  United  States. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — Barley  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of 
climatic  conditions,  but  it  does  best  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone.  It  is 
somewhat  more  exacting  in  its  soil  requirements  than  either  wheat  or 
oats.  It  does  best  on  a  well-drained  loam  that  is  well  supplied  with 
organic  matter.  It  is  quite  resistant  on  alkali  soils,  and  is,  therefore, 
adapted  to  such  soils  in  the  irrigated  districts. 

Classes  and  Varieties. — Barley  is  divided  into  two-rowed  and  six- 
rowed  forms,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  spike  or  head.  In  the 
United  States  the  six-rowed  form  predominates.  Manchuria  and  Oder- 
brucken  are  the  leading  varieties  of  this  type.  It  is  also  divided  into 
spring  and  winter,  and  bearded  and  beardless  types.  The  bearded  spring 
varieties  prevail. 

Preparation  of  Land  and  Seeding. — Barley  demands  a  well-prepared 
seed-bed,  and  should  be  seeded  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  all  danger  of 
freezing  is  past.  Best  results  are  secured  by  drilling  at  the  rate  of  six 
to  eight  pecks  per  acre.  Broadcasting  the  seed  usually  gives  much 
lower  yields  than  drilling. 


80 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Harvesting  and  Use. — Barley  is  harvested  in  the  same  manner  as 
oats.  It  should  be  shocked  in  round  shocks  with  cap  sheaves,  and  in 
threshing  the  cap  sheaves  are  usually  threshed  separately  in  order  to  secure 
as  large  a  proportion  as  possible  of  unstained  grain.  Barley  that  is  dis- 
colored by  rains  commands  a  much  lower  price  than  bright,  unstained  grain. 

More  than  half  of  the  barley  produced  in  North  America  finds  its 
way  into  the  market,  and  much  of  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  malt. 
Malt  is  largely  used  in  the  production  of  beer  and  other  malt  liquors. 
Barley  for  this  purpose  should  be  clean  and  bright  in  color,  and  should 


A  FIELD  OF  WINTER  BARLEY  SEEDED  AFTER  CORN,  ANNE  ARTJNDEL  COUNTY,  Mo.1 

be  free  from  foreign  seeds  and  broken  grains,  and  possess  a  high  germi- 
nating power. 

Use  of  By-Products. — Straw  from  barley  is  less  palatable  than  that 
of  oats  or  beardless  wheat,  and  is  also  somewhat  less  nutritious.  It 
makes  excellent  bedding,  although  the  beards  are  more  or  less  irritating 
to  both  man  and  beast. 

RYE 

Rye  is  of  minor  importance  both  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Minnesota  and  New  York  produce 
64  per  cent  of  that  grown  in  the  United  States,  while  Ontario  produces 
the  most  in  Canada. 


iFrom  Farmers'  Bulletin  518,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 


OATS,    BARLEY    AND    RYE  81 

Adaptation  and  Culture. — Rye  will  grow  on  rather  poor  soil,  and  is 
most  extensively  grown  in  districts  in  the  temperate  zone  where  the 
soils  are  low  in  fertility.  It  is  more  hardy  than  wheat,  and  this  is  one  of 
the  principal  reasons  for  growing  it.  The  time  of  seeding  and  cultural 
methods  are  the  same  as  those  for  wheat,  although  there  is  a  somewhat 
wider  range  in  the  time  of  seeding.  It  may  be  seeded  late  in  the  summer 
and  pastured  so  as  to  prevent  heading  during  the  autumn.  It  is  quite 
extensively  used  as  a  cover  crop  and  for  green  manure.  Its  hardiness 
and  adaptation  on  poor  soils  make  it  especially  valuable  for  these  purposes 
in  the  temperate  zone. 

Rye  is  frequently  broadcasted,  although  it  gives  better  results  when 
seeded  with  a  drill.  A  well-prepared  seed-bed  is  essential  to  a  good  stand 
of  plants.  Five  to  six  pecks  of  seed  per  acre  are  required. 

Uses  of  Rye. — Rye  is  frequently  used  as  a  soiling  crop  and  occa- 
sionally cut  for  hay.  When  used  for  hay,  it  should  be  cut  just  before  the 
heads  are  out.  If  not  cut  early,  the  straw  hardens  and  makes  a  tough, 
unpalatable  hay.  A  large  part  of  the  grain  of  rye  in  America  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic  beverages.  The  grain  is  excel- 
lent for  feeding  stock,  but  it  gives  best  results  when  used  in  small  quan- 
tities and  combined  with  other  grains.  It  is  best  suited  for  hogs,  horses 
and  poultry.  The  grain,  being  very  hard,  generally  gives  best  results 
when  coarsely  ground. 

REFERENCES 

"Small  Grains."     Carleton. 

"  Field  Crops."     Livingston. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  3.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

395.     "Sixty-day  and  Kherson  Oats." 

420.     "Oats:  Distribution  and  Uses." 

424.     "Oats:  Growing  the  Crop." 

427.     "Barley  Culture  in  the  Southern  States." 

436.     "Winter  Oats  for  the  South." 

443.     "Barley:  Growing  the  Crop." 

518.     "Winter  Barley." 


,  CHAPTER    6 

BUCKWHEAT,  RICE,  FLAX,  EMMER,  KAFFIR  CORN  AND  SUNFLOWER 

BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat  is  a  minor  crop  in  most  parts  of  America.  It  can  be 
considered  a  staple  crop  only  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  For 
a  number  of  years  its  acreage  has  remained  about  stationary.  The 
entire  area  devoted  to  it  in  the  United  States  is  about  800,000  acres. 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  produce  about  77  per  cent  of  the  total 
production. 

It  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  "lazy  man's  crop."  It  lends  itself  well  to 
the  farmer  who  lacks  capital.  It  brings  quick  returns  and  finds  a  ready 
market  at  fair  prices.  It  is  the  only  grain  for  which  a  farmer  can  buy 
fertilizer  on  a  ninety-day  note  and  pay  for  it  out  of  the  crop. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — Buckwheat  does  best  in  a  moist, 
cool  climate  and  at  high  altitudes.  High  temperatures  during  the  period 
of  seed  formation,  accompanied  by  hot  sunshine  followed  by  showers,  is 
generally  disastrous  to  the  crop.  Buckwheat  will  mature  a  crop  of  grain 
in  eight  to  ten  weeks  under  favorable  conditions. 

Buckwheat  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils,  but  does  best  on  well- 
drained  soils  that  are  rather  light  in  texture.  It  succeeds  on  poor  soils  and  is 
most  extensively  grown  in  those  regions  where  the  soils  are  of  rather  low 
fertility. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  common  to  the  United  States  are  Japanese, 
Silver  Hull  and  Common  Grey.  The  Silver  Hull  is  slightly  smaller 
than  the  Common  Grey.  The  seed  is  also  smaller,  plumper  and  lighter 
in  color  than  the  Japanese.  If  there  is  no  objection  to  mixing  varieties 
it  is  thought  larger  yields  can  be  secured  by  mixing  the  large  and  small 
growing  varieties,  which  affords  a  better  distribution  of  the  seed  heads  in 
the  field. 

Preparation  of  Soil  and  Seeding. — Early  plowing  of  the  land  in  order 
to  permit  harrowing  at  intervals  of  two  weeks  and  a  thorough  settling  of 
the  soil  before  seeding  time,  is  advised.  If  early  plowing  is  not  possible, 
greater  attention  should  be  given  to  a  thorough  fitting  of  the  seed-bed 
immediately  following  plowing. 

The  amount  of  seed  per  acre  varies  from  three  to  five  pecks,  depending 
on  manner  of  seeding,  character  of  seed  and  condition  of  seed-bed.  It  may 
be  seeded  either  with  the  grain  drill  or  broadcasted  and  harrowed  in.  When 
drilled  a  smaller  amount  of  seed  will  prove  satisfactory,  but  the  distribution 
of  plants  secured  by  broadcasting  is  preferable  to  that  secured  by  drilling, 

(82) 


BUCKWHEAT,    RICE,    FLAX,    ETC.  83 

unless  the  drill  hoes  are  close  together.  The  later  buckwheat  is  sown  so  as 
to  get  ripe  before  frost,  the  better  the  yield  will  be.  It  is  seldom  advisable 
to  seed  earlier  than  the  last  week  in  June,  and  in  some  localities  it  may  be 
seeded  as  late  as  the  second  week  in  July. 

Fertilizers  and  Rotations. — Buckwheat  seeded  on  poor  land  responds 
well  to  a  moderate  dressing  of  low-grade  fertilizer. ,  On  heavy  soils  where  it 
is  desired  to  grow  potatoes,  buckwheat  is  recommended  as  a  good  crop 
to  precede  potatoes.  The  following  rotation  is  recommended  for  such  soils: 
clover,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  oats  or  wheat  seeded  with  clover.  With 
this  arrangement  the  first  crop  of  clover  is  harvested  early  and  the  land 
immediately  plowed  and  seeded  to  buckwheat.  This  gives  two  crops 
during  the  season  preceding  potatoes,  and  leaves  the  land  in  excellent 
condition  for  potatoes. 

Harvesting  and  Threshing. — The  harvesting  of  buckwheat  should  be 
delayed  until  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  because  the  plants  continue 
to  bloom  and  produce  seed  until  killed  by  frost.  The  self-rake  reaper  is 
well  adapted  to  cutting  buckwheat.  The  machine  used  should  leave  the 
buckwheat  in  compact  gavels  with  as  little  shattering  as  possible.  The 
self-binder  is  sometimes  used,  being  set  to  deliver  small  bundles  loosely 
bound.  However  it  may  be  harvested,  it  should  be  set  upright  in  the  field 
so  as  to  prevent  the  grain  lying  on  the  ground.  It  is  customary  to  haul  the 
grain  directly  from  the  field  to  the  threshing  machine,  as  it  is  likely  to  mould 
when  placed  in  stacks. 

In  threshing  by  machinery,  neither  the  crop  nor  the  day  need  be 
especially  dry.  The  spiked  concave  of  the  thresher  is  generally  replaced 
with  a  smooth  one  or  a  suitable  plank.  This  avoids  serious  cracking  of  the 
grain  and  unnecessary  breaking  of  the  straw. 

Buckwheat  weighs  48  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and  35  bushels  per  acre  is 
considered  a  good  yield,  while  25  bushels  is  satisfactory.  The  average  yield 
of  buckwheat  in  the  United  States  is  18  to  19  bushels  per  acre. 

Uses  of  Buckwheat. — Buckwheat  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture 
of  pancake  flour.  In  some  sections,  and  especially  when  the  market  price 
is  low,  it  is  used  quite  extensively  for  feeding  livestock.  .  It  is  an  excellent 
poultry  feed.  The  straw,  being  coarse  and  stiff,  is  of  little  value  except  for 
bedding  or  to  make  manure. 

In  some  localities  buckwheat  is  used  as  a  green  manuring  crop.  It 
serves  well  for  this  purpose  because  it  grows  quickly,  may  occupy  the  land 
after  an  early  crop  is  removed,  and  leaves  the  soil  in  a  loose  condition. 
The  seed  being  comparatively  inexpensive  and  requiring  only  a  moderate 
amount,  makes  it  inexpensive  from  the  standpoint  of  seeding.  It  is  fre- 
quently used  as  a  catch  crop,  being  seeded  in  fields  where  other  crops  fail 
from  whatever  cause. 

Buckwheat  is  an  excellent  bee  feed.  It  blossoms  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time  and  affords  an  abundance  of  nectar  which  makes  honey  of 
good  quality. 


84  SUCCESSFUL     FARMING 

RICE 

Rice  is  unique  in  its  culture,  because  it  depends  upon  irrigation.  It  is 
one  of  the  oldest  cereals,  and  is  also  one  of  the  greatest  food  crops,  being  a 
staple  article  of  diet  for  millions  of  people  in  India,  China  and  Japan.  The 
world's  annual  production  is  approximately  175,000,000,000  pounds  of 
cleaned  rice,  the  greater  portion  of  which  is  grown  in  India,  China  and 
Japan.  As  an  article  of  food  in  the  United  States  it  is  of  minor  importance, 
and  yet  the  production  in  this  country  falls  short  of  the  consumption  by 
about  200,000,000  pounds  annually. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — Rice  is  adapted  to  a  moist,  warm 
climate,  and  its  production  in  the  United  States  is  confined  to  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coast  states.  The  bulk  of  the  crop  is  now  produced  in 
Texas,  Louisiana  and  Arkansas.  Prior  to  1890  it  was  produced  mostly 
in  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia. 

Since  the  lowland  forms  which  constitute  the  principal  source  of  the 
crop  require  irrigation,  it  demands  a  level  soil  with  a  compact  subsoil  that 
will  prevent  rapid  downward  movement  of  water.  Such  soils  are  found 
along  the  bottom  lands  of  the  rivers  and  on  the  level  prairies  of  Texas  and 
Louisiana. 

Preparation  of  Land  and  Seeding. — The  land  is  usually  plowed  in  the 
spring  and  disked  and  harrowed  to  provide  a  good  seed-bed.  The  rice  is 
seeded  at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  bushels  per  acre  with  a  seed  drill,  usually 
from  April  15th  to  May  15th.  Unless  water  is  needed  to  germinate  the 
seed  the  land  is  not  flooded  until  the  plants  are  six  to  eight  inches  high.  If 
the  soil  is  too  dry  the  land  may  be  flooded  immediately  after  seeding  for 
a  few  days  to  sprout  the  seed,  after  which  the  water  is  removed  until  the 
plants  are  six  to  eight  inches  high. 

Weeds  are  often  a  serious  menace  to  rice  culture.  Such  weeds  may  be 
brought  on  rice  fields  in  the  irrigation  water  or  may  find  their  way  there  in 
the  seed  rice.  Red  rice  is  a  serious  pest,  and  seed  should  not  be  used  in  which 
it  occurs.  The  presence  of  red  rice  in  milled  rice  lowers  its  grade  and 
reduces  its  price.  Red  rice,  being  stronger,  hardier  and  more  persistent 
than  white  rice,  soon  gets  a  foothold  in  the  fields  unless  precautions  are 
taken  to  prevent  it. 

Fertilizers  are  seldom  used  in  the  production  of  rice,  because  the  prac- 
tice of  irrigation  brings  to  the  land  some  fertility  in  the  water.  This  is 
especially  true  when  the  water  is  not  clear.  Furthermore,  rice  lands,  being 
either  river  bottom  land  or  prairie  land,  are  generally  very  fertile.  In  the 
course  of  time,  however,  if  rice  is  grown  continuously,  fertilizers  will  be 
needed. 

Flooding  or  Irrigation. — Water  is  let  into  the  rice  field  to  a  depth  of 
three  to  six  inches,  and  is  maintained  at  this  depth  until  the  crop  is  nearly 
mature.  Water  of  a  rather  high  and  uniform  temperature  is  preferred. 
Cold  water  from  mountain  streams  is  undesirable.  The  water  is  constantly 
renewed  to  prevent  it  from  becoming  stagnant,  This  necessitates  a  slow 


BUCKWHEAT,    RICE,    FLAX,    ETC.  85 

movement  of  water  across  the  rice  field,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  advis- 
able to  have  the  fields  too  large.  Irrigation  necessitates  the  land  being 
practically  level  and  surrounded  by  dikes. 

There  should  be  good  facilities  for  draining,  since  land  must  be  in 
good  condition  when  prepared  for  seeding  and  should  be  fairly  dry  at  the 
time  of  harvesting.  * 

Harvesting  and  Threshing. — It  requires  from  four  to  six  months  to 
mature  a  crop  of  rice  and  the  date  of  harvesting  in  the  United  States 
varies  from  August  to  October,  depending  on  time  of  seeding,  character  of 
season  and  variety  of  rice.  The  crop  should  be  harvested  when  the  grain 
is  in  the  stiff  dough  stage  and  the  straw  somewhat  green.  The  ordinary 
grain  binder  is  used  for  harvesting  the  crop,  and  the  methods  of  shocking, 
stacking  and  threshing  are  very  similar  to  those  used  in  wheat  production. 

Yields  and  Value. — Rough  rice  weighs  45  pounds  to  the  bushel.  It 
is  generally  put  into  barrels  of  162  pounds  each,  and  the  yield  is  spoken  of 
in  barrels,  and  ranges  from  8  to  30  barrels  per  acre ;  12  barrels  is  considered 
a  good  yield.  The  hulls  or  chaff  constitute  12  to  25  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  rice,  depending  on  variety  and  condition.  In  1910  the  total  crop  in 
the  United  States  was  valued  at  $16,000,000,  or  about  $20  per  acre.  The 
rice  is  prepared  in  mills  which  remove  the  husk  and  cuticle  and  polish  the 
surface  of  the  grain.  In  this  condition  it  is  placed  upon  the  market. 

FLAX 

Flax  is  grown  in  Canada  and  in  a  few  of  the  Northern  states.  Nearly 
nine-tenths  of  the  flax  of  the  United  States  is  grown  in  North  and  South 
Dakota  and  in  Minnesota. 

Soil  and  Climate  Adaptation. — Flax  grows  best  in  a  cool  climate  and 
on  soils  that  are  not  too  heavy.  Sandy  loams  are  better  adapted  to  the 
crop  than  clay  loams  or  heavy  clays.  It  is  extensively  grown  on  virgin 
prairie  soil,  and  is  well  adapted  for  seeding  on  the  rather  tough  prairie  sod 
when  plowed  for  the  first  time.  The  roots  of  flax  develop  extensively  near 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  It  is  often  considered  an  exhaustive  crop,  but  the 
actual  removal  of  plant-food  constituents  is  less  than  in  most  other  farm 
crops  Its  shallow,  sparse  root  system  and  the  small  amount  of  stubble 
usually  left  in  the  field  probably  explain  why  it  is  considered  exhaustive. 

Preparation  of  Land  and  Seeding. — Where  grown  on  virgin  prairie  land, 
the  sod  should  be  broken  about  four  inches  deep  and  completely  inverted 
in  order  to  make  a  smooth  surface  for  seeding  the  flax.  On  newly  plowed 
land  flax  is  seeded  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  one-half  bushel  per  acre,  and 
covered  by  harrowing.  It  is  thought  better  to  fall-break  sod,  and  to  provide 
a  better  prepared  seed-bed  the  following  spring  by  thorough  disking  and 
harrowing.  In  this  process  the  sod  should  not  be  loosened  from  its  place, 
and  the  roller  is  frequently  used  to  compact  the  seed-bed  and  keep  it  smooth 
and  also  level  to  facilitate  the  covering  of  the  seed  at  a  uniform  depth. 

Where  flax  is  grown  on  old  land  it  follows  corn  to  good  advantage,  and 


86 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


the  seed-bed  may  be  prepared  by  disking  and  harrowing  in  a  manner 
similar  to  preparing  the  land  for  oats.  In  recent  years  a  seed  drill  has 
been  used  for  seeding  flax  with  good  results.  The  seed  should  be  covered 
from  one-half  inch  to  an  inch  deep. 

Thin  seeding  encourages  the  branching  of  the  plants  and  within 
reasonable  limits  encourages  large  yields  of  seed.  On  land  foul  with  weeds 
it  is  better,  however,  to  seed  somewhat  thicker  to  prevent  weed  develop- 


A'FiELD  OF  FLAX  IN  BLOOM. i 


ment.  When  flax  is  grown  chiefly  for  the  fiber  one  and  a  half  to  two 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre  are  used. 

Harvesting  and  Threshing. — Flax  may  be  harvested  either  with  the 
self-rake  reaper  or  self-binder.  When  harvested  with  the  reaper  the  gavels 
should  be  rolled  and  set  upright.  The  heads  become  entangled  in  such  a 
way  as  to  hold  the  rolled  gavels  together.  The  straw  is  frequently  so  short 
that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible,  and  this  calls 
for  a  level  seed-bed  that  will  facilitate  close  cutting  with  machinery. 
When  cut  with  the  binder  the  bundles  should  be  set  in  small,  loose  shocks 
to  facilitate  drying.  The  highest  quality  of  seed  for  market  demands 
threshing  from  the  shock  as  soon  as  it  can  be  safely  done. 

Threshing  is  done  with  the  ordinary  threshing  machine  and  necessi- 

1  Courtesy  of  Webb  Publishing  Company,  St.   Paul,  Minn.    From  "Field  Crops,"  by  Wilson  and 
Warburton. 


BUCKWHEAT,    RICE,    FLAX,    ETC.  87 

tates  having  the  concaves  set  fairly  close  in  order  to  separate  all  the  seed 
from  the  straw.  The  seed  is  small  and  flat  and  is  but  little  broken  in  the 
process  of  threshing. 

The  threshed  seed  is  generally  placed  in  strong,  closely  woven  bags 
and  securely  tied.  The  seed,  being  small,  flat  and  exceedingly  smooth,  will 
run  almost  like  water,  and  requires  exceedingly*  tight  bins  for  its  storage 
and  very  tight  wagon  boxes  in  case  it  is  to  be  hauled  unbagged. 

Yield  and  Value  of  Crop. — The  yield  of  flax  seed  ranges  from  8  to  20 
bushels  per  acre.  Since  most  of  the  flax  is  produced  by  extensive  methods 
and  on  new  land,  the  average  yield  for  the  United  States  is  about  9  bushels. 
The  price  generally  ranges  from  $1  to  $1.50  per  bushel.  During  the  last 
few  years  a  scarcity  of  flax  has  caused  a  somewhat  higher  price.  A  bushel 
of  flax  will  produce  about  twenty  pounds  of  crude  linseed  oil,  and  the 
oil  cake  after  the  removal  of  the  oil  is  worth  from  1  to  If/?  cents  per 
pound.  The  average  annual  production  in  the  United  States  for  ten 
years  ending  1911  was  about  24,000,000  bushels,  valued  at  approximately 
$28,000,000. 

Utilization. — Flax  is  grown  chiefly  for  its  seed,  from  which  is  made 
Unseed  oil,  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paints.  The  meal,  after 
the  extraction  of  the  oil,  finds  a  ready  sale  as  a  nitrogenous  stock  food,  and 
is  extensively  used  as  a  concentrate  for  dairy  cows. 

The  straw  is  utilized  in  only  a  limited  way.  It  makes  fair  roughage 
for  stock,  although  not  as  valuable  as  oat  straw.  In  some  localities  the 
straw  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  tow,  which  is  used  hi  making  rough 
cordage  and  twine. 

In  the  old  world  the  plant  is  extensively  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
fiber.  This  necessitates  pulling  the  plants  by  hand  and  requires  special 
facilities  for  treating  the  straw  and  separating  the  fiber.  Labor  is  too 
expensive  in  this  country  to  enable  American  flax  to  compete  with  that  of 
the  old  world  in  this  respect.  Ground  flax  seed  in  small  amounts  is  a 
splendid  feed  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  It  acts  as  a  tonic  and_has  a  good 
effect  upon  the  digestive  system. 

Diseases  of  Flax. — Flax  is  so  seriously  troubled  with  a  disease 
known  as  flax  wilt  that  it  necessitates  the  use  of  treated  seed  selected 
from  wilt-resistant  plants.  The  formalin  treatment  described  for  wheat 
serves  equally  well  for  the  treatment  of  flax  seed.  Flax  seed  will 
require  only  about  one-half  gallon  of  the  solution  to  each  bushel  of  seed. 
It  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  after  sprinkling,  covered  with  canvas 
treated  with  formalin,  and  allowed  to  remain  two  or  three  hours  and 
then  stirred  and  dried.  After  thoroughly  dry  it  may  be  placed  in  bags 
which  have  been  treated  with  formalin  to  prevent  the  presence  of  wilt 
spores. 

Since  this  disease  may  live  in  the  soil  for  several  years  in  the  absence 
of  flax,  it  is  necessary  to  practice  long  rotations  in  which  flax  will  not  be 
grown  more  frequently  than  once  in  five  to  seven  years, 

15 


88 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


KAFFIR   CORN 

Kaffir  corn  is  a  non-saccharine  sorghum.  The  sorghums  are  generally 
divided  into  three  classes:  (1)  those  cultivated  chiefly  for  grain,  of  which 
Kaffir,  milo  and  dura  are  the  best  types;  (2)  those  cultivated  for  the  manu- 
facture of  brooms ;  and  (3)  those  grown  chiefly  for  the  production  of  syrup. 
Regions  of  Production. — Kaffir  corn,  milo  and  dura  are  grown  chiefly 
between  the  98th  meridian  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  south  of 

40  degrees  north  latitude. 
This  crop  is  drought 
resistant  and  adapted 
especially  to  the  dry 
conditions  of  the  Great 
Plains  region. 

Value  and  Uses. — * 
Kaffir  corn  is  used  chiefly 
as  a  source  of  stock  food. 
The  grain  is  similar  in 
composition  to  ordinary 
corn,  and  has  about  the 
same  feeding  value.  In 
composition  there  is  very 
little  difference  between 
the  stover  of  corn  and 
Kaffir  corn.  Any  surplus 
of  the  grain  finds  a  ready 
market,  and  is  in  much 
demand  for  poultry  feed. 
The  grain  may  be  fed 
either  whole  or  crushed. 
It  is  somewhat  softer 
than  the  grain  of  corn 
and  the  kernels,  being 
smaller,  can  be  used  for 
poultry  without  crush- 
ing. It  makes  excellent 


HEADS  OF  FOUR  VARIETIES  OF  KAFFIR.1 

A — White  Kaffir;  B — Guinea  Kaffir  (Guinea  corn 
of  the  West  Indies) ;  C— Blackhull  Kaffir;  D— Red 
Kaffir.  (About  one-fifth  natural  size.) 


feed    for    horses,    cattle 
and  swine. 

Varieties. — There 

are  many  varieties  in  each  of  the  three  classes  of  non-saccharine  sorghums. 
The  Kaffir  corn  proper  has  erect,  compact  seed  heads  and  the  foliage  is 
more  leafy  than  that  of  milo.  The  seed  heads  of  the  latter  are  usually 
pendant,  the  stalks  are  less  leafy  and  the  plant  is  generally  earlier  in 
maturity.  It  is,  therefore,  adapted  to  the  northern  portion  of  the  Kaffir  corn 
region,  and  to  those  localities  where  seed  production  is  most  important. 

iFrom  Farmers'  Bulletin  686,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


BUCKWHEAT,    RICE,    FLAX,    ETC. 


89 


Production  and  Harvesting.— The  preparation  of  the  land,  the  planting 
and  the  cultivation  of  Kaffir  corn  are  similar  to  those  required  for  corn  under 
the  same  conditions.  The  seed  should  be  drilled  in  rows  sufficiently  far 
apart  to  facilitate  cultivation  with  two-horse  cultivators,  usually  3J  feet 
apart.  The  seed  is  drilled  at  such  a  rate  that  «he  plants  in  the  row  will 
stand  from  4  to  6  inches  apart.  For  small  growing  varieties  plants  may  be 
closer  than  in  case  of  the  larger  varieties.  Planting  should  not  take  place 
until  the  soil  is  quite  warm.  It  is  usually  best  to  plant  about  ten  days 
later  than  the  best  time  for  planting  field  corn.  It  is  advisable  to  have  a 
well-prepared  seed-bed  free  from  weeds.  The  plants  as  they  first  appear 
are  small  and  make  slow 
growth. 

The  crop  may  be  har- 
vested by  cutting  the  whole 
plant  and  placing  in  small 
shocks,  or  the  seed  heads  may 
be  removed  and  stored  in  nar- 
row, well-ventilated  cribs. 
After  removing  the  seed  heads 
the  stalks  may  be  cut  and 
shocked  or  they  may  be  pas- 
tured as  they  stand  in  the 
field.  In  some  localities  the 
whole  plant  is  cut  and  put  in 
the  silo  in  the  same  manner  as 
making  ensilage  of  field  corn. 
The  yield  of  grain  is  fully  as 
large  as  that  of  field  corn  grain 
under  similar  conditions,  and 
the  drought-resistance  of  the 
crop  makes  it  more  certain  than  corn.  Fifty  bushels  per  acre  is  con- 
sidered a  good  yield.  The  seed  is  separated  from  the  head  by  means  of  a 
threshing  machine.  The  weight  of  threshed  grain  per  bushel  is  56  pounds. 

EMMER 

Emmer,  also  known  as  spelt,  is  closely  related  to  wheat,  but  is  distin- 
guished from  it  by  the  grain,  which  remains  enclosed  in  the  glumes  when 
threshed.  There  are  both  spring  and  winter  varieties.  The  spring  varie- 
ties are  most  extensively  grown  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  Great  Plains 
region.  The  crop  is  characterized  by  its  ability  to  make  a  satisfactory 
growth  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil.  All  of  the  varieties  are  drought  resistant, 
and  the  winter  varieties  are  fairly  hardy.  It  is  not  attacked  by  rusts  and 
smuts  to  the  same  extent  as  wheat  and  oats. 


EMMER.1 

A  good  substitute  for  oats  and  barley. 


1  From  Fanners'  Bulletin  466,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 


90  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

It  stands  up  well  in  the  field  and  is  little  damaged  by  wet  weather  at 
harvest  time. 

The  methods  used  in  the  seeding  of  other  spring  grains  will  apply  to 
emmer.  The  seed  should  be  drilled  at  the  rate  of  about  two  bushels  per 
acre.  It  is  important  to  sow  early.  The  grain  will  stand  a  great  deal  of 
spring  frosts. 

Emmer  is  well  adapted  to  the  feeding  of  stock,  and  will  easily  take  the 
place  of  oats,  barley  or  rye. 

A  comparative  test  of  emmer  as  compared  with  other  spring  grains 
covering  a  period  of  eight  years  at  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station 
shows  comparatively  little  difference  in  the  yield  of  grain  from  the  several 
crops.  Oats  led  with  1969  pounds  per  acre,  while  emmer  was  second  with 
1945  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  lowest  yield,  1711  pounds  per  acre,  was  from 
wheat. 

While  this  crop  is  especially  adapted  to  the  semi-arid  conditions  of  the 
Northwest,  it  is  suggested  that  it  might  prove  a  profitable  substitute  for 
oats  in  those  portions  of  the  Central,  Southern  and  Eastern  states  where 
oats  prove  unsatisfactory. 

SUNFLOWERS 

Sunflowers  are  a  native  of  America,  and  are  widely  but  not  extensively 
grown.  The  leaves  and  heads  of  the  plant  make  good  fodder  for  horses  and 
cattle.  The  seeds  are  used  for  bird  and  poultry  food  and  also  for  the  manu- 
facture of  oil.  Sunflowers  succeed  best  on  rather  fertile  soil  and  with  warm 
climatic  conditions.  The  requirements  are  similar  to  those  for  corn.  The 
seed  should  be  planted  in  drills  sufficiently  far  apart  for  cultivation,  and 
should  be  thinned  to  one  plant  every  12  to  14  inches  in  the  row. 

When  the  heads  form,  it  is  advisable  to  remove  all  but  two  or  three  on 
each  plant. 

The  heads  should  be  harvested  before  the  seed  is  fully  ripe.  This 
prevents  loss  of  seed  by  shattering  and  damage  by  birds.  The  heads 
should  be  spread  out  on  a  barn  floor  or  other  suitable  place  until  dry.  They 
may  then  be  stored  in  bulk.  Where  used  on  the  farm  for  poultry,  there  is 
no  need  for  threshing  the  seed.  The  cost  of  growing  sunflowers  is  much  the 
same  as  for  corn.  The  harvesting,  however,  is  much  more  expensive, 
and  until  suitable  methods  for  harvesting  and  threshing  and  storing  are 
devised,  the  crop  is  not  likely  to  be  extensively  grown. 

Yields  ranging  from  1000  to  2250  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  reported. 
The  seed  weighs  30  pounds  per  bushel. 


BUCKWHEAT,    RICE,    FLAX,    ETC.  91 

REFERENCES 

"Manual  of  Flax  Culture." 

North  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Circular  6.  "Flax." 

North  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Circular  7.  "Flax  for  Seed  and  Oil." 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

274.     "Flax  Culture." 

322.     "Milo  as  a  Dry  Land  Grain  Crop."         * 

417.     "Rice  Culture." 

448.     "Better  Grain.     Sorghum  Crops." 

466.     "Winter  Emmer." 

552.     "Kaffir  Corn  as  a  Grain  Crop." 

669.     "Fiber  Flax." 

688.     "The  Culture  of  Rice  in  California. 


CHAPTER   7 

MEADOW  AND  PASTURE  GRASSES 

Meadow  and  pasture  grasses  constitute  an  important  and  desirable 
part  of  the  roughage  for  most  classes  of  livestock.  Livestock  is  indis- 
pensable as  a  part  of  good  agriculture.  An  old  Flemish  proverb  says, 
"No  grass,  no  cattle;  no  cattle,  no  manure;  no  manure,  no  crops."  The 
history  of  agriculture  of  many  countries  shows  that  where  the  production 
of  grasses  has  been  neglected,  agriculture  has  declined.  England  neglected 
the  grass  crops  and  her  yield  of  wheat  fell  to  less  than  fifteen  bushels  per 
acre.  She  then  turned  her  attention  to  grasses  and  the  yield  increased  to 
over  thirty  bushels  per  acre.  Of  her  28,000,000  acres  of  tilled  land,  over 
one-half  are  now  in  permanent  pastures.  For  the  past  forty-five  years 
permanent  pastures  of  England  have  increased  at  about  one  per  cent 
annually.  This  should  convince  the  American  farmer  that  in  order  to 
grow  grain  profitably  crops  must  be  rotated,  and  in  this  rotation  grass 
should  find  a  prominent  place.  Some  far-sighted  farmers  in  North 
America  saw  this  many  years  ago,  and  in  the  corn  belt  those  who  have 
grown  grass  are  today  husking  sixty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  while  those 
who  did  not  must  be  content  with  about  thirty  bushels. 

Importance  and  Value  of  Grasses. — According  to  the  last  census  the 
hay  crop  of  the  United  States  was  61,000,000  tons,  valued  at  $750,000,000. 
This  does  not  include  the  annual  hay  and  forage  crops  and  various  kinds 
of  by-products,  such  as  straw  and  corn  stover.  This  amount  of  hay  will 
sustain  the  livestock  of  the  United  States  about  one-fourth  of  the  year, 
and  must  be  supplemented  by  about  200,000,000  tons  of  other  forms  of 
feed.  Considerable  of  this  comes  from  the  pastures,  for  which  we  have 
no  definite  statistics.  The  combined  value  of  hay  and  pasture  grasses 
far  exceeds  that  of  any  other  crop  excepting  corn. 

Regions  of  Production. — The  perennial  hay  and  pasture  grasses 
succeed  best  in  the  northeastern  one-fourth  of  the  United  States  and  in 
southeastern  Canada.  This  grass  region  extends  south  to  the  Potomac 
and  Ohio  rivers  and  to  the  southern  border  of  Missouri  and  Kansas, 
and  is  limited  on  the  west  by  about  the  96th  meridian.  The  region  is 
characterized  by  a  cool,  moist  climate  and  moderate  to  abundant  rainfall. 

Principal  Grasses  of  North  America. — There  are  several  hundred 
species  of  grasses,  but  of  these  there  are  less  than  one  dozen  that  are  of 
economic  importance  in  North  America.  Those  of  greatest  importance 
in  the  order  mentioned  are  timothy,  blue  grass,  redtop,  Bermuda  grass, 
orchard  grass,  smooth  brome  grass  and  Johnson  grass.  There  are  a 
number  of  others  that  are  grown  on  a  very  limited  scale,  among  which 

(92) 


MEADOW    AND    PASTURE    GRASSES 


93 


may  be  mentioned  tall  oat  grass,  meadow  fescue,  tall  fescue,  English  rye 
grass,  Italian  rye  grass,  sheep's  fescue,  red  fescue,  Sudan  grass  and  sweet 
vernal  grass. 

Valuable  Characteristics. — To  be  valuable  under  cultivation  grasses 
should  give  satisfactory  yields,  possess  good  feeding  value,  be  capable 
of  easy  reproduction  and  be  reasonably  aggressive.  To  these  might  be 
added,  habit  of  seeding  freely  so  that  seed  can  be  cheaply  harvested, 
together  with  hardiness  or  ability  to  withstand  adverse  climatic  conditions. 

Choice  of  Grasses. — The  kind  of  grass  to  grow  will  depend  on  what 
one  wishes  to  do  with  it.  For  pastures  a  mixture  or  variety  of  grasses  is 


MAP  SHOWING  REGION  OP  GRASS  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.1 

desirable  for  a  number  of  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  a  variety  of  grasses 
lends  variety  to  the  forage  for  the  pastured  animals,  and  induces  them 
to  partake  of  more  food  and  consequently  make  more  growth.  A  variety 
often  prolongs  the  season  of  pasturage,  some  grasses  making  their  growth 
in  the  early  and  late  portions  of  the  growing  season  when  weather  con- 
ditions are  cool,  and  others  growing  more  freely  in  the  warmer  portion  of 
the  season.  Variety  also  increases  the  total  yield  because  of  the  variation 
in  habits  of  growth  of  both  roots  and  foliage. 

When  grown  chiefly  for  hay,  the  yield,  quality  and  palatability  of 
the  crop  secured  are  important.  The  cost  of  establishing,  both  in  direct 
outlay  for  seed  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  should  be  considered, 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture,"  by  Piper. 


94 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


as  should  also  the  duration  of  the  grasses  and  the  length  of  time  required 
to  come  to  perfection.  Consideration  should  also  be  given  to  time  of 
maturity  as  related  to  favorable  or  unfavorable  weather.  Abundant 
sunshine  and  freedom  from  rains  facilitate  making  hay  of  good  quality. 
Where  two  or  more  grasses  are  grown,  those  should  be  selected  that  will 
mature  at  approximately  the  same  date. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — There  is  no  crop  in  which  more  seed  is  wasted 
than  the  grasses.  Of  the  seed  sown  a  relatively  small  percentage  develops 
plants,  and  probably  there  is  no  crop  in  which  failure  to  secure  a  satis- 
factory stand  of  plants  is  more  common.  This  is  due  to  a  number  of 
factors,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  poor  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed,  the  faulty  covering  of  the  seed  and  the  adverse  conditions  that 
frequently  follow  seeding,  thus  causing  a  large  percentage  of  the  small 
plants  to  perish.  The  poor  quality  of  the  seed  used  is  also  a  factor  and 
one  that  can  be  largely  avoided  by  the  purchase  of  only  first-class  seed. 
As  a  rule,  first-class  seeds,  although  costing  more  than  poor  ones,  are  the 
cheapest.  The  following  table  gives  the  rate  of  seeding,  the  cost  of  seed 
per  pound  and  the  calculated  cost  per  acre : 

COST  OF  SEED  PER  ACRE,  USING  AVERAGE  AMOUNT.* 


Plant. 

Rate  of 
Seeding, 
pounds. 

Cost  of 
Seed  per 
Pound. 

Cost  of 
Seed  per 
Acre. 

Timothy                 

15 

$0  06£ 

$0   975 

Orchard  grass  

20 

.15 

3.00 

Redtop   

10 

.10 

1.00 

Brome  grass 

20 

10 

2  00 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

25 

14 

3  50 

Italian  rye  grass                                                                .  .  . 

30 

05 

1  50 

Perennial  rye  grass.  .  .              

30 

05 

1  50 

Tall  oat  grass  

30 

.14 

4  20 

Tall  fescue   

20 

.18 

3  60 

Meadow  fescue  

20 

.11 

2.20 

Red  clover  

12 

.17 

2.04 

Alsike  clover 

8 

20 

1  60 

Alfalfa 

20 

15 

3  00 

Sweet  clover                                                                  .    .    . 

20 

20 

4  00 

Since  failure  to  secure  a  satisfactory  stand  of  grass  is  so  common, 
farmers  are  advised  not  only  to  use  every  precaution  in  the  preparation 
of  seed-bed  and  time  and  manner  of  seeding,  but  also  to  use  an  abundance 
of  good  seed.  As  land  values  increase  and  the  price  of  product  becomes 
higher,  the  necessity  for  these  precautions  becomes  greater.  The  extra 
expense  for  liberal  seeding  will  pay  abundantly  in  the  vast  majority  of 
cases.  The  ideal  seed-bed  is  moist  and  finely  pulverized.  The  slant- 
toothed  harrow  is  the  best  implement  for  making  the  final  preparation. 


and 


*The  prices  given  were  New  York  wholesale  prices  in  January,  1914.  as  given  in  "Forage  Plants 
Their  Culture,"  by  Piper.     Rate  of  seeding  for  red,  alsike  and  sweet  clover  changed. 


MEADOW  AND  PASTURE  GRASSES 


95 


Harvesting. — The  time  of  harvesting  grasses  for  hay  will  be  deter- 
mined: (1)  by  the  weather  conditions  that  prevail  at  the  period  of 
maturity,  (2)  the  injury  to  the  succeeding  crop  as  determined  by  time  of 
cutting,  (3)  the  total  yield  as  determined  by  stage  of  maturity,  (4)  the 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  secured,  and  (5)  the  digestibility  and 
palatability  of  the  product.  These  factors  ^dll  vary  somewhat  with 
different  species  of  grasses  and  with  the  character  of  animals  to  which 
they  are  to  be  fed.  In  general,  hay  cutting  should  take  place  from  the 
period  of  bloom  until  seeds  are  in  the  dough  stage.  The  total  pounds  of 
dry  matter  will  generally  increase  up  to  fair  maturity.  Palatability  will 
be  lessened  and  digestibility  diminished  if  harvesting  is  too  long  delayed. 
If  a  large  acreage  is  to  be  handled  and  weather  conditions  are  uncertain, 
the  harvest  period  is  likely  to  be  prolonged.  It  is,  therefore,  well  to  begin 


THE  SIDE  DELIVERY  RAKE.1 

harvesting  rather  early  in  order  that  the  harvest  may  be  completed  before 
the  grass  becomes  too  mature. 

The  market  demands  a  product  of  timothy  hay  that  is  fairly  mature 
when  harvested.  Such  hay  is  more  easily  cured  and  less  likely  to  contain 
dust  and  moulds.  The  large  part  of  timothy  that  is  placed  upon  the  market 
is  used  for  feeding  horses,  and  feeders  object  to  dusty  and  mouldy  hay. 

The  quality  of  hay  is  determined  to  a  large  extent  by  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  handled  and  cured.  This  in  turn  depends  to  no  small  degree 
upon  weather  conditions.  Warm  weather,  accompanied  by  plenty  of 
sunshine  and  a  fairly  dry  atmosphere,  is  favorable  to  hay  making.  If 
the  grass  is  fairly  mature  it  may  be  cut  late  in  the  afternoon  or  early  in 
the  morning,  and  placed  in  the  windrow  or  shock  during  the  evening, 
Where  hay  is  produced  extensively,  it  is  advisable  to  use  up-to-date 

1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago. 


96 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


mowing  machines,  side-delivery  hayrakes,  tedders  and  convenient  and 
automatic  forks  for  conveying  the  hay  from  wagons  to  mows  or  stacks. 
With  such  an  equipment  the  hay  is  secured  with  the  minimum  of  labor 
and  the  least  possible  handling  and  consequent  loss  of  the  leaves  and 
finer  portions. 

It  is  maintained,  however,  that  hay  of  better  quality  is  obtained  by 
curing  it  in  the  field  in  the  shock.  Cocking  hay  so  that  it  will  not  be 
unduly  exposed  to  rain  entails  additional  labor.  Canvas  covers  are 
advised  if  weather  conditions  are  uncertain. 

Hay  placed  in  the  mow  or  stack  before  thoroughly  dry  goes  through 
a  sweating  process.  A  certain  degree  of  sweating  is  deemed  desirable, 
but  should  not  proceed  sufficiently  far  to  develop  moulds  or  cause  dis- 
coloration. The  amount  of  sweating  is  dependent  on  the  moisture  in 
the  hay.  The  amount  of  moisture  in  hay  as  it  is  hauled  from  the  field 
varies  greatly,  but  ordinarily  will  not  exceed  more  than  25  to  28  per  cent; 

20  to  25  per  cent  of 

moisture  is  favorable 
to  a  good  quality  of 
hay,  and  is  better  than 
to  have  it  too  dry  or 
too  moist  when  stored. 
Numerous  determi- 
nations of  the  shrink- 
age of  hay  in  stack  or 
mow  show  a  loss  in  a 
period  of  six  months 
ranging  from  as  low  as 
3  per  cent  to  over  30 
per  cent.  This  loss  is 
due  chiefly  to  the  loss 
of  moisture  from  the 
hay.  Where  the  sweating  is  intense  and  the  temperature  runs  high, 
there  will  also  be  some  loss  of  organic  matter. 

In  stacking  hay  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  construction 
of  the  stacks  in  order  that  they  shed  water.  The  stacks  should  be  built 
of  good  form,  and  the  central  portion  should  be  more  thoroughly  compacted 
than  the  outsides.  Where  hay  is  valuable,  it  pays  to  cover  the  stacks 
with  good  canvas  covers  or  to  provide  a  roof  of  boards.  The  stack 
should  be  protected  from  the  earth  by  a  foundation  of  rails  or  by  a  thick 
layer  of  straw. 

Hay  is  marketed  both  baled  and  unbaled.  It  is  graded  according 
to  its  quality  and  freedom  from  weeds  and  grasses  other  than  that  of  the 
name  under  which  sold.  Market  grades  can  be  secured  from  grain 
dealers'  associations,  and  are  generally  given  in  market  quotations. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago. 


COMBINED  SWEEP  RAKE  AND  STACKER.1 


MEADOW    AND    PASTURE    GRASSES 


97 


TIMOTHY 

Timothy  is  the  most  important  and  the  most  extensively  grown  of 
any  of  the  meadow  grasses  in  North  America.  It  is  the  standard  grass 
for  hay  purposes  and  finds  a  ready  sale  in  all  of  the  hay  markets. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — Timothy  is  a  northern  grass  and 
seldom  does  well  in  North  America  south  of  latitude  36  degrees,  excepting 
in  high  elevations.  Cool,  moist  weather  during  the  early  part  of  the 
growing  season  is  favorable  to  good  yields  of  hay.  It  is  best  adapted  to 
loam  and  clay  loam  soils.  It  is  not  adapted  to  swampy  soil  conditions, 
neither  does  it  succeed  on  sandy  or  gravelly  soils.  It  is  not  drought 


A  FIELD  OF  GOOD  GRASS  (TIMOTHY),  COLLEGE  FARM,  PA. 
Yield,  five  tons  per  acre  field-cured  hay. 

resistant,  and  does  best  on  moist,  well-drained  soils.  It  calls  for  a  fair 
degree  of  soil  fertility  and  does  not  do  well  on  acid  soils. 

Advantages  of  Timothy. — The  importance  of  timothy  lies  chiefly  in 
its  ability  to  produce  good  yields  of  hay  that  find  a  ready  market  at  a 
fair  price.  The  plants  seldom  lodge  and  are  easily  cut  and  cured,  and  the 
period  during  which  it  may  be  cut  is  longer  than  that  for  most  grasses. 
It  seeds  abundantly,  and  seed  of  a  high  degree  of  purity  and  of  good 
germination  can  be  secured  at  a  low  cost.  It  fits  well  into  the  crop  rota- 
tions, and  is  adapted  to  seeding  with  small  grains,  such  as  wheat,  oats, 
rye  and  barley,  either  in  the  autumn  or  in  the  spring. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — The  low  price  of  timothy  seed  and  its  appearance 
make  it  difficult  of  adulteration.  No  grass  seed  on  the  market  so  nearly 


98 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


approaches  absolute  purity  as  timothy  seed;  consequently,  the  standard 
of  purity  is  placed  at  99  per  cent,  and  that  of  germination  at  98  per  cent. 
Timothy  seed  contains  about  1,200,000  seeds  to  the  pound,  and  weighs 
42  to  48  pounds  per  bushel.  The  legal  weight  is  45  pounds.  Four  pounds 
of  timothy  seed  furnish  100  seeds  to  the  square  foot  on  an  acre.  If 
every  seed  produced  a  plant  there  would  be  a  great  many  more  plants 
than  are  required  to  make  a  satisfactory  hay  crop.  The  seeds,  however, 
are  so  small,  and  the  conditions  for  germination  and  early  growth  often 
so  unfavorable,  that  12  pounds  per  acre  are  usually  required.  Tests  at 
several  of  the  experiment  stations  with  different  rates  of  seeding  show 
that  the  largest  yield  of  hay  has  been  secured  by  using  amounts  somewhat 
in  excess  of  15  pounds  per  acre. 


THE  HAY  LOADER  IN  OPERATION.* 

Under  favorable  temperature  and  moisture  conditions  the  seed 
germinates  in  five  to  six  days.  Although  a  large  percentage  of  seed  three 
or  four  years  old  will  grow,  it  is  safest  to  use  seed  that  is  not  more  than 
one  year  old.  New  seed  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  old  seed.  Old 
seed  can  generally  be  detected  by  its  lack  of  luster,  but  a  germination 
test  to  determine  the  quality  of  the  seed  is  advised. 

The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  and  where  seeded  with  a  nurse  crop  is 
generally  applied  by  means  of  the  grass  seed  attachment  to  the  grain 
drill.  There  are  two  methods  of  distributing  the  seed  by  this  attachment. 
In  some  cases  the  grass  seed  distributors  are  turned  in  front  of  the  drill 
hoes.  This  provides  for  considerable  covering  of  the  timothy  seed,  and 

1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago, 


MEADOW    AND    PASTURE     GRASSES 


99 


is  applicable  only  when  the  soil  is  of  a  sandy  nature,  or  in  excellent  physical 
condition.  Otherwise,  it  is  generally  best  to  distribute  the  seed  behind 
the  drill  hoes,  and  allow  it  to  become  covered  by  the  action  of  ram 

The  wheelbarrow  seeder  is  also  used,  and  where  the  seeding  by  the 
above-mentioned  method  cannot  be  entrusted  to  thoroughly  competent 
labor  it  is  better  to  use  the  wheelbarrow  seedef .  In  this  way  the  operator 
has  only  the  seeding  of  grass  to  look  after  and  will  do  a  better  job  than  is 
likely  to  be  done  when  the  seeding  is  combined  with  the  distribute 
grain  and  fertilizers  all  hi  one  operation. 


Rows  OF  TIMOTHY,  EACH  PROPAGATED  BY  SLIPS  FROM  THE  ORIGINAL  SEEDLINGS.1 
Each  row  represents  a  distinct  type.    Note  the  variation  in  size  and  vigor. 

When  winter  grains  are  grown,  most  of  the  timothy  is  seeded  with 
them  in  the  fall.  When  seeded  in  this  way  it  makes  but  little  growth  the 
succeeding  year,  and  no  hay  crop  is  secured.  The  second  year  a  full 
crop  of  hay  is  secured.  In  some  localities  timothy  is  seeded  alone  in  the 
fall.  This  method  is  applicable  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  timothy 
region.  It  involves  more  labor,  but  results  in  a  f ull  crop  of  hay  during 
the  following  season. 

Where  spring-sown  grains  prevail,  timothy  is  more  frequently  seede 
with  them  in  the  spring.     With  this  method,  no  crop  is  secured  the  first 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin,  514,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


100  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

season.  In  the  southern  portion  of  the  timothy  belt  spring  seeding  with- 
out a  nurse  crop  is  practiced  to  a  limited  extent.  Such  seeding  is  success- 
ful only  on  land  that  is  free  from  weeds  and  annual  grasses.  Under  such 
conditions  a  light  cutting  of  hay  is  secured  during  the  first  year. 

Timothy  may  be  seeded  on  wheat  that  has.  been  severely  winter 
killed.  If  seeded  early  and  the  wheat  is  not  harvested  too  early,  both 
wheat  and  timothy  may  be  cut  for  seed  at  one  and  the  same  operation. 
By  using  a  fanning  mill  with  proper  sieves  the  wheat  and  timothy  seed 
are  easily  separated  after  threshing. 

Fertilizers  and  Manures. — Timothy  responds  abundantly  to  light 
top  dressings  of  manure.  The  manure  should  be  applied  with  a  manure 
spreader,  and  best  results  will  be  secured  when  used  at  the  rate  of  six 
to  ten  loads  per  acre.  It  may  be  applied  any  time  during  the  autumn  or 
winter.  In  the  absence  of  manure,  a  top  dressing  with  a  complete  fertil- 
izer early  in  the  spring  just  as  the  grass  begins  to  start  is  very  beneficial. 
In  several  of  the  states  350  pounds  per  acre  containing  about  seven  per 
cent  of  each  of  the  three  constituents  have  given  excellent  results. 

Tests  at  several  of  the  experiment  stations  relative  to  the  position  of 
the  roots  of  timothy  in  the  soil  show  that  85  to  90  per  cent  of  the  roots  are 
found  in  the  first  six  inches  of  soil.  In  one  case  63  per  cent  occurred  in 
the  upper  two  inches  of  soil.  This  is  important  in  connection  with  the 
top  dressing  of  timothy  and  shows  that  such  top  dressing  is  very  close 
to  the  great  bulk  of  the  active  roots  of  the  crop. 

Mixing  Timothy  with  Other  Grasses  and  Clovers. — If  the  hay 
product  is  to  be  fed  on  the  farm,  it  is  advisable  to  seed  clover  with  timothy. 
In  this  practice  the  amount  of  timothy  seed  is  reduced  to  eight  or  ten 
pounds  per  acre,  and  may  be  seeded  either  in  the  fall  or  spring,  depending 
on  local  practice.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  timothy  region  the  clover 
can  be  safely  seeded  only  in  the  spring.  Six  to  ten  pounds  of  clover  seed 
per  acre  will  be  required,  depending  .on  soil  conditions  and  the  kind  of 
clover.  The  first  crop  of  hay  will  be  largely  clover,  the  second  chiefly 
timothy. 

Where  meadow  land  is  to  be  used  for  hay  during  the  first  year  or 
two  and  afterwards  devoted  to  pasture,  it  is  well  to  include  redtop,  blue 
grass  and  some  other  grasses  and  clovers  with  it.  It  is  also  thought  wise 
on  very  wet  lands  or  on  sour  soil  to  include  some  redtop  with  the  timothy 
for  hay  purposes. 

Harvesting. — Many  experiments  relative  to  the  time  of  harvesting 
show  that  the  best  results  are  secured  only  when  cut  between  the  time 
of  full  bloom  and  the  soft  dough  stage  of  the  seed.  Since  timothy  is 
shallow  rooted  and  much  of  its  vitality  depends  on  the  thickened  bulb- 
like  base  of  the  stem,  it  is  desirable  not  to  cut  too  closely.  Close  cutting, 
or  pasturing  closely  with  stock  after  cutting,  injures  the  subsequent 
crops  by  exposure  of  the  bulbs  and  by  injury  from  tramping.  Only  when 
the  aftermath  is  abundant  should  pasturing  be  allowed.  In  no  case  is  it 


MEADOW    AND    PASTU&fe    GfeA&SES 


101 


deemed  desirable  to  pasture  with  sheep;,  si$C5  Jjiejy  Jare;#$t;ttf  inp.  off  the 
crown  of  the  plant  and  thus  destroy  it. 

Pasturing. — Timothy  is  distinctly  a  grass  for  hay  rather  than  for 
pasturing.  It  may  be  used  in  pasture  mixtures  to  give  early  grazing, 
and  will  give  way  to  the  more  permanent  grasses  which  are  slower  in 
becoming  established.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  cut  timothy  for  hay 
purposes  for  one  or  more  years  and  then  pasture  during  the  year  just 
preceding  the  devotion  of  the  land  to  another  crop. 


FIELD  OF  TIMOTHY  PLANTS  GROWN  FOR  SELECTION,  SHOWING  VARIATION  IN  SIZE 
AND  FORM  OF  INDIVIDUAL  PLANTS.1 

Slips  and  seeds  from  choice  plants  are  used  for  propagating  new  strains. 

Seed  Production. — Timothy  generally  produces  between  five  and 
twelve  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  It  is  most  conveniently  cut  with  the 
self-binder,  and  is  threshed  with  the  ordinary  threshing  machine,  using 
special  sieves  to  clean  and  separate  the  seed.  Loss  from  shattering  will 
be  severe  if  allowed  to  become  over-ripe.  If  cut  promptly  the  straw  has 
considerable  feeding  value.  The  principal  seed-producing  states  are 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Kansas  and  Ohio. 

Composition  and  Feeding  Value. — Timothy  hay  contains  about  6 
per  cent  of  protein,  45  per  cent  of  carbohydrates,  2.5  per  cent  of  fat  and  29 
per  cent  of  crude  fiber.  About  one-half  of  this  is  digestible. 

'Farmers'  Bulletin,  514,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


102 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TftnatHy^Although  timothy  has  been  an  important 
crop  and  large  quantities  of  seed  are  bought  and  sold,  as  yet  no  varieties 
have  been  developed.  Timothy  plants  show  marked  variation  in  size, 
vigor,  character  of  foliage  and  resistance  to  drought.  Improvement  of 
the  crop  for  special  purposes  can  be  made  by  the  selection  and  propagation 
of  desirable  plants.  Several  of  the  experiment  stations  have  made  progress 
along  this  line  and  have  already  developed  strains  of  timothy  that  have 


VARIATIONS  IN  TIMOTHY.  1 

outyielded  that  secured  from  commercial  seed  by  as  much  as  one  ton 
per  acre. 

Marketing  the  Hay. — The  bulk  of  timothy  hay  is  placed  upon  the 
market  in  bales  of  about  100  pounds  each.  The  market  calls  for  bright, 
clean  timothy  hay,  free  from  weeds  and  various  grasses.  When  mixed  with 
clover,  redtop  or  other  grasses,  quotations  will  be  somewhat  lower  than  for 
pure  timothy. 

BLUE   GRASS 

There  ar3  two  chief  species  of  blue  grass  in  North  America,  namely, 
Kentucky  blue  grass  and  Canada  blue  grass.  These  grasses  spread  by 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "Plant  Breeding,"  by  Bailey. 


MEADOW  AND  PASTURE  GRASSES    103 

means  of  seed  and  also  by  underground  root  stocks.  They  give  rise  to  an 
even  and  continuous  turf,  and  are  especially  adapted  for  pasture  purposes. 
They  are  aggressive  grasses  and  tend  to  take  possession  of  the  land  and 
crowd  out  weeds  and  other  grasses.  The  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  superior 
in  both  quality  and  yield.  Its  climatic  adaptation  is  essentially  the  same 
as  that  for  Canada  blue  grass,  and  ranges  from*Virginia  northward  into 
Canada,  and  westward  to  the  central  part  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  It 
reaches  its  highest  development  in  the  region  of  limestone  soils.  Parts  of 
Kentucky,  Missouri,  Virginia  and  Tennessee  are  noted  for  their  blue  grass 
regions.  It  also  succeeds  well  on  both  the  timber  and  prairie  soils  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois  and  Iowa. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — These  two  prominent  pasture  grasses 
are  adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  climate  having  thirty  inches  of  rainfall  and 
upward.  They  are  exceedingly  resistant  to  cold,  never  freezing  out  in 
even  the  most  severe  winters.  These  grasses  prefer  well-drained  loams 
or  clay  loams.  They  are  not  adapted  to  loose,  sandy  soils.  The  Kentucky 
blue  grass  calls  for  a  fair  to  good  degree  of  fertility,  and  where  these  two 
grasses  are  seeded  together  on  such  soil,  the  Kentucky  blue  grass  will 
soon  take  full  possession.  The  Canada  blue  grass  has  the  ability  to  grow 
on  poor  soils,  although  it  will  produce  only  small  crops  and  poor  pasturage 
under  such  conditions.  On  poor  soils  the  Canada  blue  grass  will  take  pos- 
session finally  to  the  exclusion  of  Kentucky  blue  grass. 

Although  these  two  grasses  will  make  hay  of  fair  quality,  the  yield 
is  so  low  that  they  are  not  adapted  to  hay  purposes. 

Importance  of  Blue  Grass. — As  pasture  grasses  these  are  unexcelled 
for  the  temperate  portions  of  North  America  wrhere  the  rainfall  is  fairly 
abundant.  They  are  not  only  valuable  as  summer  pasture,  but  as  winter 
pasture  for  horses  and  sheep,  have  no  equal.  When  desired  for  winter 
pasture  they  should  not  be  closely  pastured  during  the  summer.  Winter 
pasture  from  these  grasses  can  often  be  provided  by  turning  the  stock  into 
the  fields  from  which  the  spring  crops  have  been  harvested  and  on  to  meadow 
land  during  the  late  summer  and  autumn.  This  permits  the  blue  grass  to 
make  good  growth  for  winter  pasture.  Even  when  covered  with  snow, 
horses  and  sheep  will  paw  off  the  snow  and  pasture  on  the  grass. 

Severe  drought  during  the  summer  may  completely  suspend  the  growth 
of  blue  grass  and  cause  it  to  appear  dead.  No  matter  how  long  the  period 
of  drought,  rains  will  quickly  revive  the  grass  and  it  will  resume  its  normal 
growth  and  condition.  It  will  stand  a  great  abundance  of  tramping  without 
serious  injury.  The  writer  has  seen  calves  retained  in  hurdle  pens  during 
wet  weather  on  blue  grass  until  the  surface  would  be  thoroughly  puddled 
and  no  grass  visible.  A  few  weeks  after  removing  the  pens  the  grass  would 
be  in  as  thrifty  a  condition  as  ever. 

Methods  of  Establishing. — Blue  grass  seed  weighs  from  fourteen  to 
twenty-eight  pounds  per  bushel,  the  legal  weight  being  fourteen  pounds. 
The  weight  is  determined  chiefly  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  glumes 

16 


104  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

or  hulls  that  enclose  the  seed  proper.  Blue  grass  seed  is  frequently  of  low 
vitality,  due  to  faulty  methods  of  harvesting  and  curing.  It  is  always  well 
to  test  the  seed  before  seeding  as  a  guide  to  the  amount  of  seed  desirable 
to  use.  Blue  grass  is  very  slow  in  becoming  thoroughly  established,  and 
good  pastures  can  seldom  be  secured  in  less  than  two  years  from  time  of 
seeding,  and  in  some  cases  more  time  is  required.  It  is  generally  advisable 
to  seed  with  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  clovers,  some  of  which  will  give  prcmpt 
pasture.  Timothy,  orchard  grass,  and  red  and  alsike  clover  are,  therefore, 
frequently  used.  These  ultimately  give  way  to  the  blue  grass.  Virgin 
grass  land  and  meadow  land  are  frequently  converted  into  blue  grass 
pastures  by  seeding  blue  grass,  which  gradually  spreads  and  takes  posses- 
sion. When  used  for  lawn  purposes,  the  rate  of  seeding  should  be  three  to 
four  bushels  per  acre.  As  little  as  eight  to  ten  pounds  per  acre  may  be 
used  when  seeded  with  other  grasses  and  when  plenty  of  time  is  allowed 
for  becoming  well  established.  Ordinarily,  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds 
of  blue  grass  should  be  used  when  it  is  the  chief  grass  for  the  pasture. 

It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  seed  of  Kentucky  blue  grass  and 
Canada  blue  grass.  The  latter  is  sometimes  used  to  adulterate  the  former, 
since  it  generally  is  less  costly. 

Pasture  Maintenance. — Blue  grass,  because  of  its  numerous  under- 
ground root  stocks,  tends  to  form  a  sod-bound  turf.  This  condition  may  be 
obviated  by  seeding  blue  grass  pastures  with  red  or  alsike  clover  every 
three  or  four  years.  This  can  be  done  by  using  a  disk  drill  early  in  the 
spring.  The  use  of  the  disk  will  also  help  to  overcome  sod-binding.  The 
presence  of  the  clover  will  enhance  the  pasture  for  the  time  being,  and 
especially  during  the  dry  period  when  the  blue  grass  will  remain  dormant. 
The  clover  roots  tend  to  loosen  up  the  ground  and  supply  nitrogen  to  the 
blue  grass.  White  clover  is  advantageous  when  seeded  with  blue  grass. 
It  re-seeds  itself  and  becomes  permanent  so  long  as  soil  conditions  are 
favorable.  Under  favorable  conditions  and  with  proper  treatment,  blue 
grass  pastures  improve  with  age,  at  least  for  several  years.  There  are 
many  instances  of  such  pastures  having  been  undisturbed  for  thirty 
or  forty  years. 

REDTOP 

Redtop  is  a  native  grass  of  North  America,  and  grows  naturally  in  cold, 
wet  soils.  It  is  a  perennial  provided  with  long,  creeping  underground  root 
stems,  and  spreads  both  by  means  of  these  and  seeds.  It  forms  a  contin- 
uous and  fairly  even  turf,  and  is,  therefore,  well  adapted  for  pasture  pur- 
poses. It  has  a  wider  range  of  adaptation,  both  from  the  soil  and  climatic 
standpoint,  than  any  other  cultivated  grass.  It  is  resistant  to  cold  and 
withstands  summer  heat  much  better  than  timothy.  It  does  not  show  much 
preference  for  type  of  soil,  but  does  best  on  loams  and  clay  loams.  It  is 
exceedingly  tolerant  of  soil  acidity.  It  is  also  fairly  drought  resistant  and 
succeeds  better  than  most  grasses  on  poor,  sandy  soils, 


MEADOW    AND    PASTURE    GRASSES         105 

Importance  of  Redtop. — Redtop  is  the  third  or  fourth  most  important 
perennial  grass  in  America.  It  is  adapted  to  both  pasture  and  hay  pur- 
poses, although  it  is  not  equal  to  timothy  as  a  hay  producer  nor  to  Kentucky 
blue  grass  for  pasture  purposes.  As  a  pasture  grass  it  is  not  so  palatable 
as  Kentucky  blue  grass.  * 

Culture. — Like  Kentucky  blue  grass,  redtop  is  aggressive  and  fre- 
quently takes  full  possession  of  the  land.  It  is  seldom  seeded  alone,  usually 
being  included  in  mixtures.  The  rate  of  seeding  depends  on  the  quality 
of  the  seed  and  the  nature  of  the  mixture  in  which  seeded.  With  re-cleaned 
seed,  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  per  acre  are  sufficient  when  seeded  alone. 
Much  smaller  amounts  will  meet  the  requirements  in  mixtures.  The  time 
and  manner  of  seeding  are  similar  to  those  for  timothy. 

Yields  and  Uses. — Redtop  has  been  tested  at  a  number  of  state  experi- 
ment stations  and  yields  of  hay  ranging  from  3000  to  5600  pounds  per  acre 
are  reported.  In  order  to  be  of  good  quality  redtop  should  be  cut  early. 
If  allowed  to  become  fairly  mature  it  makes  hay  that  is  fibrous  and  unpala- 
table. Numerous  analyses  show  that  redtop  hay  contains  more  nutrients 
than  timothy  hay. 

ORCHARD   GRASS 

Orchard  grass,  a  native  of  Europe,  is  grown  quite  generally  throughout 
the  United  States,  except  in  the  semi-arid  sections  and  the  extreme  south. 
It  is  a  rather  deep-rooted,  coarse  grass  which  grows  in  tufts  or  bunches  and 
is  without  creeping  root  stocks.  It  does  best  in  a  temperate  climate,  but 
will  stand  more  heat  than  timothy,  and  is  less  resistant  to  cold.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  cultivated  more  abundantly  southward  than  northward. 
It  begins  growth  earlier  than  most  grasses,  and  often  produces  a  second 
cutting  of  hay. 

Importance. — Orchard  grass  ranks  fourth  or  fifth  in  importance  among 
the  perennial  cultivated  hay  grasses  in  North  America.  It  is  most  exten- 
sively grown  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Ken- 
tucky, southern  Indiana,  Iowa  and  Oregon. 

Culture. — The  seed  of  orchard  grass  weighs  from  fourteen  to  twenty- 
two  pounds  per  bushel,  and  when  seeded  alone  requires  about  thirty-five 
pounds  per  acre.  Germination  of  the  seed  is  complete  in  about  fourteen 
days.  It  may  be  seeded  either  in  the  fall  or  very  early  spring.  When 
seeded  in  the  fall,  early  seeding  is  desirable  to  prevent  winter  killing.  The 
seed,  being  of  an  exceedingly  chaffy  character,  does  not  feed  well  through 
a  seed  drill,  and  is  generally  sown  by  hand  or  with  the  wheelbarrow  or  other 
types  of  seeders. 

Ordinarily,  the  grass  does  not  form  seed  the  first  season.  It  is  long- 
lived,  and  individual  plants  are  known  to  live  eight  years,  and  will  probably 
live  longer. 

Yields  and  Uses. — Whether  seeded  in  fall  or  spring,  the  first  year's 
growth  rarely  gives  a  hay  crop,  but  it  may  be  utilized  for  pasture.  When 


106  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

used  for  hay  it  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  in  full  bloom.  The  stems  become 
woody  if  it  stands  longer.  It  is  usually  about  three  weeks  earlier  than 
timothy  and  is  advantageous  on  lands  infested  with  ox-eye  daisy,  flea-bane 
and  other  weeds  that  do  not  ripen  seed  before  time  of  harvesting  it.  It 
yields  about  as  well  as  timothy,  and  yields  reported  from  several  experi- 
ment stations  range  from  three-quarters  of  a  ton  to  two  and  one-half  tons 
per  acre,  the  average  being  1.4  tons. 

It  is  considered  valuable  as  a  soil  binder  and  serves  to  prevent  soil 
erosin  on  land  subject  to  washing. 

It  is  recommended  as  a  constituent  of  mixed  pastures.  It  is  valuable 
in  this  respect  because  of  its  early  growth  and  its  ability  to  grow  during  cool 
weather.  It  succeeds  best  under  heavy  grazing,  and  is  admirably  adapted 
for  shady  pastures  and  in  orchards  that  are  to  be  grazed. 

Brome  grass. — Brome  grass  is  of  comparatively  recent  introduction. 
It  is  a  long-lived  perennial,  spreading  both  by  seeds  and  root  stocks.  It 
forms  heavy  clumps,  frequently  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  but  when  seeded 
abundantly  these  join  and  form  a  compact  sod.  It  is  quite  deep  rooted  and 
is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climatic  conditions,  both  from  the  standpoint 
of  temperature  and  rainfall.  It  is  especially  important,  both  as  a  hay  and 
pasture  grass,  for  the  Great  Plains  region  and  the  Pacific  Northwest. 

The  method  of  seeding  is  similar  to  that  for  timothy.  It  is  especially 
valued  for  hay  during  the  first  two  years  after  seeding.  There  is  then  a 
tendency  to  become  sodbound,  after  which  it  serves  better  for  pasture.  It 
is  both  palatable  and  nutritious,  whether  used  as  hay  or  for  pasture. 

Tall  Oat  Grass. — This  grass  has  a  climatic  adaptation  very  similar 
to  orchard  grass.  It  is  fairly  drought  resistant  and  does  poorly  on  wet 
land.  It  does  best  on  rather  loose,  deep  loams,  and  succeeds  well  on  calca- 
reous soils;  also  does  well  on  sandy  and  gravelly  soil,  but  is  not  adapted 
to  poor  land.  It  is  a  perennial  and  is  strictly  a  bunch  grass. 

When  used  for  hay  it  should  be  cut  promptly  while  in  bloom.  After 
this  period  the  stems  rapidly  become  woody.  It  yields  well,  but  is  of  low 
quality,  the  hay  being  somewhat  bitter  in  taste.  For  this  reason  it  is 
generally  best  grown  in  mixtures. 

The  Fescues. — There  are  a  number  of  fescues,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  meadow  fescue,  tall  fescue,  reed  fescue,  sheep's  fescue  and  red 
fescue.  None  of  these  are  of  much  importance  in  American  agriculture. 
They  have  about  the  same  range  of  adaptation  as  timothy. 

Sheep's  fescue  is  a  fine-textured,  small-growing  species  adapted  for 
lawn  grass  mixtures.  Sheep  eat  it  quite  freely,  but  cattle  avoid  it  if  other 
grasses  are  available. 

Red  fescue  makes  a  dense  growth  under  favorable  conditions  and  may 
attain  a  height  of  two  feet  or  more.  It  makes  fair  yields  of  hay,  but  is  not 
equal  to  many  of  the  better  species  for  this  purpose. 

Rye  Grasses. — Perennial  rye  grass  is  a  short-lived,  rapid-growing 
perennial,  living  usually  only  two  years  on  poor  land,  but  somewhat  longer 


MEADOW    AND    PASTURE    GRASSES        107 

under  favorable  conditions.  It  is  seldom  employed  except  in  lawn 
mixtures. 

Italian  rye  grass  is  adapted  to  moist  regions  with  mild  winters.  It 
succeeds  best  on  loam  and  sandy  loam  soils.  It  is  adapted  for  hay  purposes 
and  may  be  cut  several  times  during  the  season.  * 

Sudan  Grass. — A  tall  annual  grass  resembling  Johnson  grass,  but 
spreads  only  by  seeds.  It  has  been  recently  introduced  and  seems  to  be 
best  adapted  to  the  semi-arid  belt.  It  has  been  tried  in  an  experimental 
way  in  many  of  the  states  and  has  generally  made  a  good  growth. 


SUDAN  GRASS,  A  NEW  ACQUISITION.* 

Bermuda  Grass. — Bermuda  grass  is  a  perennial  with  numerous 
branched  leafy  stems,  which,  under  favorable  conditions,  attain  a  height  of 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches.  Ordinarily,  it  is  not  so  tall.  This  grass  occurs 
chiefly  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  but  extends  as  far  north  as 
Pennsylvania  and  Kansas.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the  cotton  belt,  and 
is  to  the  South  what  blue  grass  is  to  the  North.  While  it  is  more  particu- 
larly adapted  as  a  pasture  grass,  it  is  also  quite  extensively  used  as  hay. 
It  will  grow  on  all  types  of  soil,  but  does  best  on  rich,  moist  bottom  lands 
that  are  well  drained.  It  is  also  used  as  a  lawn  grass.  Bermuda  grass  does 
not  seed  at  all  freely  and  most  of  the  seed  is  imported.  It  is  most  easily 
propagated  by  cutting  the  culms  into  short  pieces,  scattering  them  on  the 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmiilan  Company,  N.  Y.     From  "Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture,"  by  Piper. 


108  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

field  to  be  seeded  and  covering  them  with  disk,  harrow  or  other  suitable 
implements.  These  fragments  of  grass  take  root  and  spread  rapidly  by 
means  of  numerous  root  stocks  or  creeping  stems. 

Bermuda  grass  meadows  and  pastures  frequently  become  sod-bound 
and  fall  off  in  yield.  This  condition  may  be  alleviated  by  disking  or  by 
plowing  and  harrowing.  After  such  treatment  the  growth  will  become  much 
more  vigorous. 

Johnson  Grass. — It  is  a  coarse,  large-growing  species  adapted  to  the 
whole  of  the  cotton  belt.  It  grows  well  in  the  summer  as  far  north  as  37 
degrees  north  latitude,  but  usually  will  not  withstand  winters  in  such  lati- 
tude. It  spreads  both  by  seeds  and  rhizomes,  and  when  once  established 
it  is  difficult  to  eradicate.  It  is  utilized  for  both  hay  and  pasture.  Two 
or  three  crops  per  season  are  frequently  harvested. 

Para  Grass. — This  is  a  rank-growing  tropical  species  adapted  to  moist 
loams  or  clay  loams.  In  the  United  States  it  is  adapted  only  to  Florida, 
and  the  Gulf  Coast  to  southern  Texas.  This  grass  is  easily  propagated  by 
cuttings  of  the  long,  prostrate  runners  in  much  the  same  way  that  Bermuda 
grass  is  propagated.  It  is  of  value  both  for  pasture  and  for  feeding  in  the 
fresh  state.  It  is  seldom  used  for  making  hay. 

Guinea  Grass. — This  is  a  long-lived  perennial  with  short,  creeping, 
root  stocks.  It  generally  grows  in  immense  tufts,  sometimes  as  much  as 
four  feet  in  diameter.  The  culms  are  large,  erect,  tall  and  numerous. 
It  is  adapted  to  tropical  conditions,  but  may  be  grown  in  Florida  and  along 
the  Gulf  Coast  of  North  America.  Both  this  and  the  preceding  grass  may 
be  cut  several  times  each  year.  Under  strictly  tropical  conditions,  cuttings 
are  frequently  made  every  six  or  seven  weeks. 

REFERENCES 

"A  Textbook  on  Grasses."    Hitchcock. 
"Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture."     Piper. 
"Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America."     Hunt. 
"Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them."     Shaw. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

361.  'Meadow  Fescue  (Its  Culture  and  Uses)." 

362.  'Conditions  Affecting  Value  of  Market  Hay." 
402.      'Canada  Blue  Grass  (Its  Culture  and  Use)." 
502.      'Timothy  Production  on  Irrigated  Land." 

508.  'Market  Hay." 

509.  'Forage  Crops  for  the  Cotton  Region." 


CHAPTER    8 

THE  CLOVERS 

Clovers  are  important  on  account  of  their  high  protein  content  and 
nutritive  ratio.  They  are  especially  valuable  as  forage  for  all  classes  of 
livestock.  Clovers  enrich  the  soil  in  nitrogen  and  organic  matter,  and 
improve  its  physical  condition  through  the  deep  penetration  of  roots.  For 
years  farmers  have  paid  out  large  sums  in  the  purchase  of  nitrogen  for  the 
soil  and  protein  for  livestock.  This  can  be  largely  avoided  by  growing  an 
abundance  of  leguminous  crops  on  the  farm. 

Characteristics  of  Clovers. — The  true  clovers  are  herbaceous  leafy 
plants  having  three  palmately  arranged  leaves.  The  larger  growing 
species  have  deep  roots  on  which  occur  nodules  containing  certain  species 
of  bacteria.  These  bacteria  enable  the  plants  to  secure  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  use  it  in  their  development.  For  this  reason  legumes  are  richer  in 
protein  than  other  classes  of  plants.  Of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  plants 
about  two-thirds  are  in  the  tops  and  one-third  in  the  roots. 

Uses  of  Clovers. — As  a  rule  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  roughage 
in  the  ration  for  milk  cows  and  young  stock  should  consist  of  legumes, 
among  which  the  clovers  as  hay  are  most  convenient  to  use  and  most 
economical.  The  larger  growing  clovers  are  also  quite  extensively  used  for 
soiling  purposes,  and  in  some  cases  have  been  used  for  ensilage.  The 
clovers  are  also  among  the  most  important  crops  for  green  manuring  and 
as  cover  crops. 

Inoculation. — Since  all  of  the  legumes  contain  bacteria  in  the  nodules 
on  their  roots,  it  is  best  to  inoculate  many  of  the  legumes  when  grown  for 
the  first  time  in  any  locality.  .  In  most  of  the  clover  region  soils  are  already 
inoculated  for  the  clovers.  If  inoculation  is  advisable,  it  may  be  effected 
either  by  soil  transferred  or  by  the  use  of  artificial  cultures.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  as  a  rule  each  legume  has  a  particular 
species  of  bacteria.  Three  to  four  hundred  pounds  of  soil  transferred  from 
a  well-established  field  of  any  species  of  clover  to  a  new  field  will  effect 
satisfactory  inoculation  of  the  latter.  The  soil  should  be  taken  from  the 
zone  of  most  abundant  root  activity,  thoroughly  distributed  on  the  new 
field  and  at  once  mixed  with  the  soil  by  disking  or  harrowing. 

Artificial  cultures  have  now  been  perfected  and  can  be  purchased  at 
reasonable  prices  from  many  manufacturing  firms.  The  culture  is  generally 
applied  directly  to  the  seed  just  before  it  is  sown. 

Composition  and  Feeding  Value. — The  composition  of  several  species 
of  clovers  in  the  green  state  and  in  forms  of  preservation  will  be  found  in 
Table  I,  in  Part  IJIi  ^Clovers,  whether  used  for  ensilage,  soiling,  hay 

(109) 


110  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

or  pasture,  all  possess  high  feeding  value,  and  are  especially  desirable  for 
the  production  of  milk,  butter  and  the  growth  of  young  animals.  They  are 
among  the  most  highly  nutritious  forage  plants,  and  should  supplant  as 
far  as  possible  the  expensive  concentrates  such  as  bran,  oil  meal,  cotton- 
seed meal,  etc. 

Harvesting  Methods. — The  purpose  for  which  the  product  is  used 
will  determine  the  method  of  harvesting.  When  used  for  soiling,  it  is 
advisable  to  cut  clover  each  day  in  quantities  sufficient  to  meet  the  day's 
ration.  If  used  for  silage  it  should  be  cut  when  fairly  mature,  and  go 
directly  to  the  silo  with  but  little  loss  of  moisture. 

When  clovers  are  cut  for  hay,  both  the  quality  and  quantity  of  feed 
should  be  considered.  If  the  acreage  to  be  harvested  is  large  it  will  be 


A  CLOVER  FIELD  IN  BLOSSOM.1 

advisable  to  commence  early  in  order  to  complete  the  work  before  the  crop 
becomes  too  mature.  The  more  uncertain  the  weather,  the  earlier  the 
process  should  begin. 

The  best  quality  of  hay  is  secured  by  a  comparatively  slow  process  of 
curing.  In  this  process  the  moisture  should  leave  the  plants  almost  entirely 
through  the  leaves.  Clover  cut  in  the  middle  of  a  hot,  dry  day  when  the 
ground  is  dry  and  the  sunshine  bright,  will  dry  so  rapidly  that  the  leaves  soon 
lose  their  structure,  become  brittle  and  cease  to  give  off  moisture.  Although 
there  may  still  be  much  moisture  in  the  stems  of  the  clover,  the  leaves 
will  break  and  be  largely  lost  in  the  handling  of  the  hay.  These  leaves  are 
high  in  feeding  value.  It  is  wise,  therefore,  to  cut  in  the  evening  and  to 
place  the  hay  in  the  windrow  before  the  leaves  become  sufficiently  dry  to 
break  and  shatter.  The  best  quality  of  hay  is  secured  by  placing  in  shocks 
before  thoroughly  cured  and  allowing  curing  to  be  completed  slowly  within 

1  Courtesy  of  Hoard's  Dairyman. 


THE     CLOVERS  ill 


the  shock.  This  entails  much  additional  work,  and  if  weather  conditions 
are  favorable  a  good  quality  of  hay  may  be  secured  without  resorting  to 
shocking. 

Clover  hay  may  go  into  the  mow  or  stack  with  25  to  30  per  cent  of 
moisture  without  injury.  Good  judgment  and  prompt  and  systematic 
work  on  the  part  of  the  haymaker  are  necessary  to  secure  the  best  results. 

The  hay  tedder  and  side-delivery  rake  are  important  adjuncts  to 
securing  a  good  quality  of  clover  hay,  and  may  be  considered  necessities 
where  the  acreage  is  sufficiently  large  to  justify  their  purchase. 

RED   CLOVER 

Red  clover  is  a  native  of  western  Europe,  and  has  long  been  cultivated 
in  North  America.  It  is  now  the  most  important  leguminous  crop  in  the 
Northern  and  North  Central  states  and  eastern  Canada.  While  red  clover 
is  grown  to  some  extent  in  every  state  and  province  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  it  is  most  extensively  grown  in  those  states  lying  north  of  the 
Ohio  River  and  east  of  the  Missouri  River.  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  how- 
ever, produce  a  large  acreage.  The  accompanying  map  shows  the  distribu- 
tion of  red  clover,  grown  alone  and  with  timothy,  by  states  and  provinces 
for  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — Red  clover  is  quite  resistant  to  cold 
and  endures  winters  well  in  Nova  Scotia,  Maine  and  Minnesota.  Northern 
grown  seed  is,  therefore,  generally  preferable  for  seeding  in  cold  latitudes. 
It  does  not  do  well  in  an  extremely  warm  climate,  and  in  the  South  succeeds 
only  when  planted  in  the  fall,  and  usually  survives  only  one  year.  A 
moderate  to  abundant  rainfall  is  desirable. 

It  is  adapted  to  quite  a  wide  range  of  soils,  but  makes  its  best  growth 
on  fertile,  well-drained  soil  well  supplied  with  lime  and  organic  matter  and 
reasonably  free  from  weeds.  Any  soil  that  will  grow  corn  successfully 
is  well  adapted  to  red  clover.  It  does  not  do  well  on  poorly  drained  land. 
On  such  soil  alsike  clover  succeeds  better. 

Endurance  of  Red  Clover. — Red  clover  is  generally  considered  a 
biennial,  the  plants  dying  at  the  end  of  their  second  year.  Some  plants, 
however,  will  live  over  for  a  third  year  and  a  few  frequently  die  at  the  close 
of  their  first  year.  The  time  of  seeding  and  the  treatment  during  the  first 
year  doubtless  influence  the  life  of  clover  plants.  It  is  a  common  belief 
that  if  clover  blooms  abundantly  toward  the  close  of  the  first  year  many  of 
the  plants  will  fail  to  continue  their  growth  the  following  year.  For  this 
reason  clipping  or  light  pasturing  is  advised. 

Clover  on  wet  soil  may  be  killed  in  severe  winters  by  repeated  freezing 
and  thawing.  The  plants  will  be  so  nearly  pulled  out  of  the  soil  that  they 
perish  in  the  spring  for  want  of  moisture  and  plant  food.  If  the  ground  is 
deeply  frozen  and  the  surface  only  thaws  and  freezes  the  taproots  are 
broken.  This  difficulty  is  best  overcome  by  a  thorough  drainage  of  the 
soil  and  by  providing  a  surface  mulch. 


112 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Securing  Clover  Seed. — The  intelligent  selection  of  clover  seed  calls 
for  knowledge  relative  to  the  characteristics  of  both  good  and  poor  seed. 
Good  seed  is  plump  and  has  a  bright  luster,  and  is  generally  violet  to  bright 
yellow  in  color.  The  proportion  of  violet  to  yellow  varies  considerably 
in  different  lots  of  seed.  Good  seed  should  be  free  from  noxious  weed- 
seeds  and  adulterants  of  any  kind.  The  standard  of  purity  should  not 
be  below  98  per  cent  and  the  germination  should  be  about  98  per  cent. 
Frequently  some  of  the  clover  seeds  will  be  so  hard  that  they  will  not 
germinate  promptly.  The  hardness  of  the  coat  prevents  absorption  of 
moisture.  The  percentage  of  hard  seeds  is  largest  in  new  seed. 

Home-grown  seed  possesses  several  advantages:  (1)  it  is  likely  to  be 
adapted  to  local  climatic  and  soil  conditions;  (2)  its  use  avoids  the  intro- 


MAP  SHOWING  THE  ACREAGE  OF  RED  CLOVER  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  1909,  AND  CANADA,  1910. 

duction  of  obnoxious  weeds  foreign  to  the  neighborhood.  Among  the 
most  obnoxious  weeds  are  clover  dodder,  buckhorn,  Canada  thistle  and 
dock.  Most  weed-seeds  may  be  removed  by  the  use  of  suitable  screens. 
The  longevity  of  clover  seed  is  three  years.  The  deterioration  in  vitality 
depends  largely  upon  the  conditions  of  storage.  Continuous  warm,  moist 
conditions  cause  deterioration  and  make  it  inadvisable  to  use  seed  more 
than  two  years  old.  A  considerable  percentage  of  the  seed  as  determined 
by  numerous  tests  will  retain  its  vitality  for  quite  a  number  of  years,  and 
the  hard  seeds  have  been  known  to  germinate  after  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 

Seed  of  mammoth  clover  is  so  much  like  that  of  red  clover  that  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  them.  Ordinarily,  mammoth  clover  seed 
is  a  little  larger  than  that  of  red. 

Preparation  of  Seed-Bed. — Red  clover  is  usually  seeded  in  the  winter 


THE    CLOVERS  113 


or  spring,  in  which  case  no  special  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  is  necessary. 
When  seeded  in  this  way  natural  covering  results  from  the  freezing  and 
thawing  of  the  ground  and  the  beating  of  rains.  If  conditions  for  spring 
seeding  with  wheat  necessitate  seeding  rather  late,  it  is  best  to  harrow 
the  wheat,  thus  covering  the  clover  seed.  * 

When  seeded  with  spring  grain  the  preparation  for  the  grain  is  generally 
sufficient  for  the  clover.  It  will  pay,  however,  to  provide  a  well-prepared 
seed-bed  that  will  fully  meet  the  needs  of  clover  seed,  even  though  equally 
thorough  preparation  is  not  necessary  for  the  spring  grain.  A  fair  degree 
of  compactness  and  a  thorough  covering  of  the  seed  are  desirable. 

Time,  Manner,  Rate  and  Depth  of  Seeding. — In  all  regions  of  moderate 
to  severe  winters,  winter  or  spring  seeding  is  advisable,  except  when 
clover  may  be  seeded  in  midsummer  without  a  nurse  crop.  Further  south, 
fall  seeding  may  be  practiced  without  winter  injury  to  the  young  clover 
plants. 

While  clover  seed  is  generally  broadcasted,  recent  tests  show  that  better 
results  can  be  secured  with  less  seed  by  using  a  grass  seed  drill.  Such 
implements  are  now  available  and  are  so  constructed  as  to  drill  the  rows 
at  intervals  of  four  inches.  Their  adjustment  permits  of  a  shallow  cover- 
ing of  the  seed.  The  rate  of  seeding  when  clover  is  growTi  alone  should  be 
ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  good  seed  per  acre  if  broadcasted  and  a  somewhat 
smaller  amount  when  drilled.  When  seeded  in  mixtures  the  amount  may 
be  reduced,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  grass  seed  mixture.  Clover 
seed  should  be  covered  from  one-half  to  two  inches  in  depth.  On  very 
loose,  dry  soils  it  may  be  covered  as  much  as  three  inches  deep  with  fairly 
good  results. 

Failure  to  secure  a  satisfactory  stand  of  clover  frequently  results 
from  various  causes.  The  condition  of  newly  seeded  clover  fields  immedi- 
ately after  the  nurse  crop  is  harvested  should  be  observed.  If  there  are 
indications  of  insufficient  plants  for  a  satisfactory  stand,  it  is  generally 
advisable  to  re-seed  at  once.  This  re-seeding  may  take  place  over  those 
portions  of  the  field  where  the  stand  is  poor,  or  may  cover  the  entire  field 
as  conditions  require.  A  disk  should  be  used  to  loosen  the  soil  before 
seeding,  and  after  seeding  it  should  be  harrowed.  Disking  may  injure 
some  of  the  clover  present,  but  not  seriously. 

Good  results  are  also  secured  by  seeding  in  August  without  a  nurse 
crop.  Such  seeding  takes  place  after  the  wheat  or  oat  harvest  and  provides 
for  a  full  clover  crop  the  following  year.  The  chief  objection  to  this  method 
is  the  extra  labor  of  preparing  the  seed-bed  and  seeding. 

Nurse  Crops  for  Clover. — Where  clover  grows  without  difficulty,  it  is 
common  practice  to  seed  with  some  nurse  crop.  In  sections  where  winter 
wheat  is  grown,  this  crop  is  a  favored  nurse  crop  for  clover.  Winter  wheat 
is  seldom  seeded  before  the  latter  part  of  September  and  this  does  not  give 
sufficient  time  for  clover  to  make  enough  growth  to  protect  itself  during 
the  winter.  As  a  result  the  clovers  north  of  latitude  36  should  be  seeded  in 


114  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  late  winter  or  early  spring  in  the  growing  wheat.  Of  the  spring-seeded 
grains,  barley  and  oats  are  the  best  nurse  crops  for  clover.  These  should 
not  be  seeded  very  thick,  otherwise  the  clover  may  be  smothered.  The 
nurse  crop  should  be  cut  sufficiently  high  to  leave  a  stubble  that  will  protect 
the  young  clover  as  much  as  possible. 

Fertilizers  for  Clover. — As  a  rule,  no  fertilizers  or  manures  are  applied 
directly  for  the  benefit  of  the  clover.  The  residual  effect  of  that  applied 
to  the  crop  preceding  the  clover  is  generally  sufficient.  This  is  especially 
true  when  seeded  with  winter  wheat.  On  soils  of  low  fertility,  especially 
when  there  is  little  organic  matter  present,  top  dressing  with  manure  pre- 
vious to  the  time  of  seeding  is  very  beneficial  to  the  clover.  No  nitrogen 
is  needed  when  commercial  fertilizer  is  used.  Moderate  amounts  of  phos- 
phorus and  potash  applied  broadcast  will  meet  the  needs. 

After-Treatment  of  Clover. — Clover  seeded  with  a  grain  crop  seldom 
requires  any  special  treatment  during  the  first  year.  Under  favorable 
conditions  it  may  make  sufficient  growth  after  the  harvest  of  the  grain  to 
produce  a  cutting  of  hay.  This  is  thought  by  some  to  be  injurious  to  the 
following  year's  clover  crop.  It  is,  therefore,  advised  to  clip  the  clover 
before  it  comes  extensively  into  bloom,  and  allow  the  clipping  to  lie  on  the 
field.  If  so  abundant  as  to  smother  the  plants,  it  may  be  removed. 
Clipping  is  also  advisable  to  prevent  the  ripening  of  the  seeds  of  obncxicus 
weeds  and  grasses  that  are  always  present  to  some  extent.  The  clipping 
should  be  so  timed  as  to  prevent  the  seeding  of  the  largest  possible  number 
of  such  plants.  If  too  early,  seeds  may  develop  after  the  clipping,  and  if 
too  late  some  of  the  seeds  may  have  already  matured.  The  ordinary 
mowing  machine  with  the  bar  set  rather  high  is  well  suited  for  this  purpose. 

Light  pasturing  may  be  practiced  instead  of  clipping.  Pasturing  with 
sheep  is  best,  since  sheep  are  fond  of  many  of  the  weeds  and  grasses,  and 
will  eat  the  seeds  in  great  abundance. 

Since  red  clover  lives  only  two  years,  the  first  crop  during  the  second 
year  is  generally  cut  for  hay  and  the  aftermath  is  either  used  for  a  seed  crop, 
is  pastured  or  plowed  under  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil.  If  the  second  crop 
is  to  be  used  for  seed  it  is  wise  to  cut  the  first  crop  early.  This  encourages 
a  better  development  of  the  second  crop  and  increases  seed  production. 
The  first  crop  should  be  cut  just  as  it  is  coming  into  bloom.  If  the  clover 
is  to  remain  for  the  third  year,  seed  must  be  allowed  to  mature  during  the 
late  summer  of  the  second  season,  with  a  view  of  having  the  clover  re-seed 
itself  naturally.  This  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  method,  however,  because 
the  seed  heads  generally  fall  to  the  ground  and  give  rise  to  an  uneven  distri- 
bution of  the  seed.  This,  however,  may  be  obviated  by  thoroughly 
harrowing  the  field  after  the  seed  heads  are  mostly  on  the  ground.  The 
harrowing  breaks  up  the  heads  and  distributes  the  seed.  It  should  be  so 
timed  as  to  avoid  destruction  of  clover  plants  when  just  starting. 

Harvesting  Clover. — Red  clover,  harvested  for  hay,  should  be  cut 
when  one-third  of  the  blossoms  have  begun  to  turn  brown.  At  this  time 


THE     CLOVERS  115 


the  plants  will  contain  about  all  the  nutrients  they  ever  will  have,  and  the 
product  will  cure  readily  and  make  a  palatable,  digestible  hay.  After  this 
period  the  lower  leaves  begin  to  fall  rather  rapidly  and  the  clover  is  apt  to 
lodge  so  that  loss  takes  place. 

When  used  for  soiling  purposes,  cutting  may  begin  as  soon  as  the  first 
blossoms  appear,  and  continue  until  the  crop  is  fairly  mature.  When  used 
for  silage,  the  plants  should  be  fully  as  mature  as  when  cut  for  hay.  If 
cut  too  green  it  makes  a  sloppy,  sour  silage  of  poor  quality.  When  used 
for  silage,  clover  gives  best  results  when  mixed  with  non-leguminous  crops. 
The  second  cutting  of  clover  can  frequently  be  used  to  mix  with  corn  in  the 
making  of  silage. 

The  least  expensive  way  of  harvesting  is  to  pasture.  While  red  clover 
is  not  especially  well  adapted  to  pasture  purposes,  it  makes  a  good  quality 
of  pasture,  and  especially  when  mixed  with  grasses.  It  is  especially  suited 
to  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  sometimes  subject  to 
bloating  when  allowed  to  feed  on  red  clover  when  it  is  especially  succulent 
or  when  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  Such  trouble  occurs  only  when  the  animals 
are  unaccustomed  to  it  and  when  they  feed  too  heavily. 

Clover  Seed  Production. — Red  clover  seed  may  be  successfully  pro- 
duced in  practically  all  areas  adapted  to  the  production  of  clover  hay.  It 
differs  in  this  respect  from  alfalfa. 

Seed  production  is  encouraged  by  retarding  somewhat  the  vegetative 
growth.  Conditions  that  will  produce  a  medium  growth  of  plant  usually 
induce  the  best  setting  of  seed.  Good  seed  crops  are  seldom  secured  from 
a  rank  growth  of  clover.  Under  such  conditions  the  heads  are  few  and  are 
not  well  filled.  The  probable  yield  of  seed  and  advisability  of  saving  the 
crop  for  that  purpose  can  be  determined  by  a  careful  examination  of  a 
number  of  seed  heads.  If  the  seed  heads  are  fairly  abundant  and  contain 
an  average  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  seeds  etich,  it  indicates  a  yield  of  one  to 
two  bushels  per  acre,  and  justifies  saving  for  seed  purposes.  If  the  average 
number  of  seeds  is  not  more  than  twenty  it  will  generally  not  pay  to  cut 
for  seed.  This  determination  must  be  made  fairly  early  in  order  to  cut  the 
crop  for  hay  before  it  becomes  too  mature  in  case  it  will  not  pay  to  save 
for  seed. 

It  is  a  common  belief  that  seed  production  calls  for  a  pollination  of  the 
flowers  by  insects.  The  ordinary  honey  bee  cannot  reach  the  nectar  of 
the  average  clover  blossom,  and  is,  therefore,  not  instrumental  in  the  fertili- 
zation of  the  flowers.  Bumble  bees,  however,  are  supposed  to  be  the  most 
effective  agents  in  this  process.  There  are  probably  numerous  very  small 
insects  that  also  produce  pollination.  However  this  may  be,  the  second 
crop  is  the  one  that  gives  best  results  for  seed  purposes.  At  that  tune 
insects  are  more  numerous,  weather  conditions  are  drier  and  the  plants 
tend  to  produce  seed  more  abundantly  than  earlier  in  the  year.  Occasion- 
ally the  first  crop  will  produce  plenty  of  seed.  The  seed  crop  should  be  cut 
when  the  largest  number  of  heads  can  be  secured.  If  cut  too  early,  the 


116 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


late  blossoms  will  have  no  seeds  or  will  have  poorly  developed  seeds.  If 
cut  too  late,  the  early  blossoms  will  have  shattered  off. 

The  old-fashioned  self-rake  reaper  is  best  adapted  to  cutting  the  seed 
crop.  It  leaves  the  cut  clover  in  bunches  of  convenient  size,  sufficiently 
far  from  the  standing  clover  for  the  team  and  machine  to  pass  for  the  next 
swath.  These  bunches  of  cut  clover  do  not  need  to  be  disturbed  until  they 
are  ready  to  be  hauled  to  the  threshing  machine.  In  the  absence  of  the 
self-rake  reaper,  a  mowing  machine  with  a  buncher  may  be  substituted. 
If  the  buncher  leaves  the  clover  in  the  path  of  the  team  and  machine,  a 
man  should  follow  the  machine  with  a  barley  fork  and  move  the  bunches. 
Serious  shattering  in  the  cutting  process  may  be  avoided  by  harvesting  the 
crop  in  the  evening  or  early  in  the  morning,  or  on  damp  days. 

The  clover  is  generally  threshed  with  a  clover  huller.  This  machine 
should  contain  two  cylinders.  Concaves  must  be  set  rather  close  in  order 

to  remove  all  of  the 
clover  seed  from  the 
hulls.  The  seed  being 
valuable,  it  is  advised 
to  spread  canvas  be- 
neath the  machine  to 
save  the  clover  seed 
which  shatters  out  in 
the  threshing  process. 
Where  threshing  is 
done  on  a  barn  floor 
canvas  will  not  be 
required. 

The  seed   should 

be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  being  placed  upon  the  market  or  used  for 
seed  purposes.  Nearly  all  foreign  matter  and  weed  seeds  can  be 
removed  by  use  of  a  suitable  fanning  mill.  Occasionally  there  are  seeds 
present  of  about  the  same  size  and  weight  as  clover  seeds,  and  these 
will  be  difficult  to  remove.  Buckhorn  seed  is  difficult  to  remove  in  this 
way.  It  is  a  very  troublesome  weed  in  meadows  and  the  following  process 
of  removing  it  from  clover  seed  is  recommended.  Thoroughly  wet  the 
clover  seed  with  water  at  about  room  temperature,  and  allow  to  stand  in 
the  water  for  five  minutes,  or  as  much  as  eight  minutes  if  the  temperature 
of  the  water  is  low.  The  water  is  then  drained  off  and  the  moist  seed 
thoroughly  mixed  with  sawdust;  about  four  parts  of  sawdust  to  one  part 
of  seed  by  measure  will  be  required.  Two  or  three  minutes  of  thorough 
mixing  will  cause  the  sawdust  to  absorb  the  free  surface  moisture  from  the 
seed.  The  buckhorn  seeds  become  mucilaginous  and  the  sawdust  adheres 
to  them.  The  mixture  is  now  run  through  two  screens,  preferably  in  a 
fanning  mill.  The  upper  one  should  be  perforated  with  round  holes 

*  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  «f  Agriculture.    From  Farmers'  Bulletin  495. 


A  CLOVER  BUNCHER  ATTACHED  TO  A  MOWING  MACHINE.1 


THE    CLOVERS 


117 


one-fifteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  lower  should  be  a  No.  22  mesh 
wire  screen.  The  buckhorn  seeds  with  sawdust  adhering  will  pass  over  the 
surface  of  the  upper  screen  and  be  removed.  The  clover  seed  will  pass 
through  the  openings  and  be  retained  by  the  lower  screen,  passing  off  at 
the  edge,  where  it  may  be  collected.  The  sawdust  should  be  fine  and  will 
pass  through  the  lower  screen.  Through  this  process  the  separation  is 
made  complete. 

Red  Clover  Troubles. — The  principal  enemies  of  red  clover  are  insects, 
fungous  diseases  and  weeds.     Much  is  heard  concerning  clover  sickness, 


RED  CLOVER  ON  LIMED  AND  UNLIMED  LAND.* 


but  little  is  known  relative  to  the  nature  of  the  malady.  Failure  to  grow 
continuous  crops  of  clover  may  be  due  to  any  one  of  several  causes.  Soil 
acidity  is  probably  the  most  common  cause  of  clover  failure.  This,  as 
previously  stated,  is  overcome  by  the  use  of  lime.  One  of  the  most  common 
diseases  of  clover  is  anthracnose.  In  some  sections  nematodes  have  also 
been  responsible  for  clover  failure. 

Alsike  Clover. — Is  a  perennial  plant  intermediate  between  red  and 
white  clover  in  size  and  appearance.  It  is  adapted  to  ground  that  is  too 
wet  for  red  clover  and  is  also  more  tolerant  of  acidity. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N,  Y.     From  "Crops  and  Methods  for  Soil  Improve- 
ment,   by  Agee. 


118  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

As  a  hay  crop  it  will  not  yield  as  much  as  red  clover,  although  it  makes 
hay  of  finer  textures  and  retains  the  leaves  better.  It  is  hardier  than  red 
clover,  but  lodges  worse.  The  foliage  is  slightly  bitter  and  not  relished  as 
well  by  cattle.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  mix  it  with  red  clover  or  with 
grasses.  It  matures  about  two  weeks  earlier  than  red  clover;  consequently, 
does  not  fit  into  mixtures  as  well  as  the  red.  It  may  be  grown  with  early- 
maturing  grasses  such  as  orchard  grass  and  redtop.  Alsike  clover  and  red- 
top  make  an  admirable  mixture  for  wet,  sour  soil,  and  may  be  used  both 
for  hay  and  pasture  purposes. 

It  seeds  abundantly  and  the  seed,  though  much  smaller  than  that  of 
red  clover,  commands  about  the  same  price.  Six  to  eight  pounds  per  acre 
when  seeded  alone  are  sufficient.  Smaller  amounts  may  be  used  in  mix- 
tures. 

White  Clover. — White  clover  is  a  low-growing  perennial,  having 
abundant  solid,  creeping  stems.  It  is  well  adapted  to  moist  soils  in  nearly 
all  of  the  temperate  zone.  It  is  especially  well  adapted  for  pasture  purposes 
and  is  frequently  used  with  blue  grass  both  in  pastures  and  lawns.  It 
seeds  abundantly,  often  producing  from  two  to  six  bushels  per  acre,  the 
price  ranging  a  little  above  that  for  common  red  clover.  It  has  long  been 
valued  as  a  honey  plant.  The  blossoms  when  excluded  from  insects 
usually  set  no  seeds. 

Ladino  Clover. — This  clover  is  similar  to  white  clover,  but  much  larger. 
It  has  but  recently  been  introduced  into  North  America.  It  furnishes  good 
yields  of  excellent  pasturage  and  under  favorable  weather  conditions  attains 
sufficient  size  to  be  harvested  for  hay. 

Crimson  Clover. — This  is  a  winter  annual  adapted  only  to  regions  of 
mild  winters.  It  is  extensively  used  as  a  green  manuring  and  cover  crop. 
It  may  be  seeded  from  May  to  August,  either  alone  or  in  other  crops  such 
as  standing  corn.  It  makes  hay  of  a  good  quality  if  cut  just  as  it  comes  in 
flower.  The  plant  is  somewhat  hairy  and  the  seed  heads  are  abundantly 
supplied  with  long  hairs.  If  the  heads  become  rather  mature,  the  hairs 
harden  and  cause-  serious  trouble  when  fed  to  livestock.  It  is  never 
advisable  to  feed  straw  from  crimson  clover  to  horses.  Either  the  mature 
hay  or  straw  causes  hair  balls  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  that  frequently 
result  in  the  death  of  the  animals.  Both  the  hay  and  seed  crops  are 
handled  in  about  the  same  way  as  red  clover. 

Sweet  Clover. — This  plant  has  come  into  prominence  in  recent  years, 
and  has  been  extensively  discussed  in  the  agricultural  press.  Recent 
careful  inquiries  and  investigations  indicate  that  it  is  destined  to  become 
an  important  legume,  both  as  a  forage  crop  and  for  soil  improvement. 

There  are  several  species  of  sweet  clover,  but  the  white  sweet  clover 
(Melilotus  alba)  is  the  most  valuable  under  most  conditions.  It  is  adapted 
to  a  wide  range  of  both  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  It  is  exceedingly 
hardy  and  makes  fair  growth  under  adverse  conditions.  It  is  a  biennial. 
It  is  often  spoken  of  as  a  roadside  weed,  and  occurs  along  roadways  in  many 


THE    CLOVERS  119 


parts  of  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union  and  the  provinces  of  Canada.  It 
seeds  abundantly,  the  seed  being  similar  to  that  of  alfalfa.  The  plant 
also  closely  resembles  alfalfa  in  its  early  stages  of  growth,  although  the 
blossoms  and  seed  heads  are  quite  different.  ^ 

It  is  deep  rooted  and  the  tops  often  attain  a  height  of  four  to  five  feet. 
The  composition  of  sweet  clover  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  alfalfa.  It 
is  high  in  digestible  protein  and  very  nutritious  as  feed.  Because  of  a 
peculiar  odor  and  taste,  animals  seldom  eat  it  at  first.  They  soon  acquire 
a  taste  for  it  and  eat  it  with  avidity  and  thrive  on  it. 

Sweet  -clover  is  especially  valuable  for  soil  improvement.  Its  greatest 
benefit  will  result  by  plowing  it  under  the  second  season  before  it  blooms. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  hulled 
seed,  or  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds  when  hulls  are  present. 


PASTURING  SWEET  CLOVER  IN  KANSAS.* 

It  may  be  seeded  either  in  August  or  early  in  the  spring.  The  methods  of 
seeding  are  similar  to  those  for  red  clover. 

Lespedeza  or  Japan  Clover, — This  is  a  small-growing  summer  annual, 
attaining  a  height  of  six  to  eighteen  inches,  depending  on  soil  conditions. 
It  is  adapted  especially  to  the  cotton  belt.  It  is  to  the  South  what  white 
clover  is  in  the  North.  It  is  especially  adapted  for  grazing  purposes,  and  a 
mixture  of  Bermuda  grass  and  Lespedeza  makes  a  good  pasture  for  many 
parts  of  the  South.  It  begins  growth  in  the  middle  spring  and  reaches 
maturity  in  September  or  October.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
yellow-flowered  hop  clovers  which  it  closely  resembles  by  its  purple  blos- 
soms, which  do  not  appear  until  August  or  later,  while  the  hop  clovers  bloom 
early.  It  seeds  freely  and  perpetuates  itself  from  year  to  year  by  self- 
seeding. 

Bur  Clover. — This  is  a  rather  small-growing  clover  indigenous  to 
Texas  and  California,  and  is  closely  related  to  alfalfa.  It  is  of  very  little 
value  for  hay,  and  will  give  only  one  cutting.  It  serves  best  for  winter 
and  early  spring  grazing.  It  is  especially  valuable  because  it  affords 


1  Courtesy  of  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
17 


120  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

grazing  in  the  South  for  about  two  months  before  Bermuda  grass  and 
other  summer  grasses  are  available  for  this  purpose.  It  makes  a  good 
combination  with  Bermuda  grass  for  an  all-year-round  pasture. 

Hop  Clover. — Common  in  the  Southern  and  Eastern  states  on  sandy 
soils  and  along  roadsides.  Periodically  this  plant  comes  into  notice,  due 
probably  to  favorable  seasonal  conditions  inducing  an  abundant  growth  of 
unusual  size.  It  often  attracts  the  attention  of  farmers  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  become  interested  in  its  economic  possibilities  and  send  samples 
to  their  experiment  station  for  information  and  advice. 

There  are  several  species  of  hop  clover  and  the  taller  one  doubtless  is 
worthy  of  cultivation  for  pasture  purposes  and  for  soil  improvement, 
especially  on  run-down  soils  that  are  best  suited  for  pasture  purposes. 

REFERENCES 

"Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them."     Shaw. 
Kentucky  Expt.  Station  Circular  8.     "Clover  Sickness." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

323.      'Clover  Farming  on  Northern  Jack-Pine  Lands." 

441.      'Lespedeza  or  Japan  Clover." 

455.      'Red  Clover." 

550.      'Crimson  Clover:    Growing  the  Crop." 

676.      'Hard  Clover  Seed  and  Its  Treatment  in  Hulling." 

693,      'Bur  Clover." 


CHAPTER    9 

ALFALFA 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  oldest  forage  crops.  Its  history  has  been  closely 
related  to  that  of  man  throughout  past  ages.  It  was  highly  esteemed  by 
the  ancient  Persians  as  the  most  important  of  forage  crops,  and  followed 
their  invasion  by  Xerxes  into  Greece,  490  B.  C.  During  the  early  centu- 
ries of  the  Christian  era  it  spread  throughout  the  countries  of  Europe,  and  it 
was  brought  to  North  America  by  the  early  colonists.  It  was  introduced 
into  the  Eastern  colonies  under  the  name  of  Luzerne.  It  found  its  way  into 


MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA  SHOWING  ACREAGE  OF 
ALFALFA.     FIGURES  =  AcRES.1 


California  and  other  Western  states  probably  by  way  of  South  America, 
and  brought  with  it  the  Spanish  name  of  alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  is  characterized  by  its  deep  root  system,  on  which  are  found 
nodules  similar  to  those  described  under  the  clovers.  The  bacteria  in 
these  nodules  enable  the  alfalfa  to  secure  nitrogen  directly  from  the  air. 
Alfalfa  plants  are  propagated  only  by  seeds.  They  do  not  spread,  as  do 
some  of  the  clovers  and  many  of  the  grasses,  by  creeping  stems  and  under- 
ground root  stocks.  Alfalfa  is  a  perennial  and  under  favorable  conditions 
lives  many  years  and  attains  a  large  size.  The  crowns  of  the  plant  become 


Piper. 


Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.     From  "Forage    Plants  and  Their  Culture,"  by 


(121) 


122  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

much  branched  and  old  plants  frequently  give  rise  to  as  many  as  200 
stems. 

Distribution  of  Alfalfa. — This  plant  is  grown  as  a  crop  in  every  state 
in  the  Union  and  most  of  the  provinces  of  Canada.  The  map  on  the 
preceding  page  gives  the  acres  by  states  and  provinces. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptation. — Alfalfa  is  best  adapted  to  a  warm,  dry 
climate.  In  North  America  it  is  most  extensively  and  successfully  grown 
under  the  semi-arid  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  hay  grown  in  New  Mexico  is  alfalfa. 
Over  one-half  of  that  grown  in  Colorado  is  alfalfa.  Kansas  produces  more 
than  Nebraska,  and  Nebraska  more  than  the  Dakotas.  The  relative 
production  of  alfalfa  as  compared  with  other  forms  of  hay  and  forage 
decreases  as  we  proceed  northward  and  eastward.  Alfalfa  has  been  culti- 
vated so  long  that  strains  and  varieties  have  been  developed  that  are 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climate.  For  this  reason  it  is  extensively  grown 
in  North  America.  It  will  withstand  great  heat  and  extreme  cold  in  the 
arid  regions,  but  is  more  sensitive  to  such  extremes  in  the  humid  regions, 
and  rarely  succeeds  in  tropical  or  sub-tropical  regions  where  the  humidity 
is  high  and  rainfall  abundant. 

It  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils,  growing  well  on  loose,  sandy 
soils  as  well  as  upon  heavy  clays.  It  succeeds  best  on  soils  of  medium 
texture  that  are  capable  of  deep  penetration  by  roots  and  well  supplied 
with  mineral  plant  foods.  It  will  not  succeed  on  soils  closely  underlaid 
with  hardpan,  impervious  rock  or  standing  water.  Neither  will  it  thrive 
on  sour  soils. 

Essentials  for  Success. — In  the  western  half  of  the  United  States  there 
are  probably  few  localities  where  alfalfa  will  not  succeed  with  the  most 
ordinary  treatment.  Its  growth  would  be  curtailed  or  possibly  prevented 
by  the  presence  of  too  much  alkali  or  by  over-irrigation.  In  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States  where  conditions  are  less  favorable,  there  are 
certain  essentials  necessary  to  the  success  of  this  crop  that  must  be  carefully 
considered.  These  are  good  drainage,  freedom  from  weeds,  absence  of 
acidity  or  presence  of  plenty  of  lime,  a  fair  degree  of  organic  matter  in  the 
soil,  thorough  preparation  of  seed-bed,  most  favorable  time  of  seeding, 
inoculation  of  seed  or  seed-bed  and  the  use  of  plenty  of  good  seed.  Added 
to  this  will  be  the  after  treatment,  such  as  time  of  cutting,  care  in  pasturing, 
cultivation  and  mulching. 

The  treatment  essential  to  success  being  so  diverse  and  exacting, 
farmers  contemplating  growing  alfalfa  are  advised  to  first  undertake  it  on 
a  small  scale.  There  are  a  number  of  advantages  in  doing  this,  such  as  the 
practical  experience  gained  and  the  providing  of  inoculated  soil. 

Varieties  of  Alfalfa. — Thus  far  varieties  and  regional  strains  of  alfalfa 
have  been  relatively  unimportant.  At  least  95  per  cent  of  the  alfalfa  in 
North  America  may  be  called  ordinary  alfalfa.  A  number  of  strains  have 
been  introduced  from  time  to  time,  some  of  which  are  superior  for  hardi- 


ALFALFA  123 


ness.  Aside  from  the  common  or  ordinary  alfalfa,  Turkestan,  Arabian, 
Peruvian  and  Grimm  are  of  some  importance.  The  common  or  ordinary 
alfalfa  is  that  generally  grown  in  North  America,  Europe,  Argentine  and 
Australia.  , 

Turkestan  alfalfa  closely  resembles  ordinary  alfalfa,  and  neither  plant 
nor  seed  can  be  easily  distinguished  from  it.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  little 
more  drought  and  cold  resistant  than  ordinary  alfalfa,  but  is  inferior  to  the 
ordinary  alfalfa  for  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States. 

Arabian  alfalfa  may  be  recognized  by  its  hairiness,  large  leaflets,  rapid 
growth  and  short  life.  It  begins  growth  and  continues  to  grow  at  a  some- 
what lower  temperature  than  common  alfalfa. 

Peruvian  alfalfa  may  be  recognized  by  its  somewhat  bluish  appearance, 
coarse,  erect  stems  and  large  leaflets. 

Grimm  alfalfa,  brought  to  this  country  from  Germany,  has  been  culti- 
vated here  for  a  long  time,  and  through  elimination  of  the  less  hardy  plants 
has  become  adapted  to  severe  climatic  conditions.  It  is,  therefore,  recom- 
mended for  the  Northern  states.  It  is  claimed  to  resist  severe  pasturing 
better  than  ordinary  alfalfa,  and  is  thought  to  be  somewhat  more  drought 
resistant.  The  seed  is  higher  priced  than  that  of  the  ordinary  alfalfa. 

Sources  of  Seed. — Best  results  are  usually  secured  by  the  use  of  locally 
grown  seed.  In  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  very  little  seed  is  produced, 
and  imported  seed  must  be  relied  upon.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  secure 
seed  from  approximately  the  same  latitude  or  preferably  somewhat  north 
of  the  latitude  in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  Nebraska-grown  seed  is  good  for 
Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio.  Kansas-grown  seed  is  generally  a  little  cheaper 
and  will  be  good  for  Missouri  and  southern  Illinois.  Dakota  seed  will  be 
higher  priced,  but  should  be  used  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota  and  Michigan. 

Alfalfa  seed  varies  in  purity,  germination  and  price.  It  is,  therefore, 
wise  to  -secure  samples  from  several  sources  before  purchasing.  These 
should  be  examined  for  impurities  and  tested  for  germination  as  a  basis 
for  calculating  which  will  be  the  cheapest.  None  but  first-class  seed, 
free  from  noxious  weed  seeds  and  showing  good  germination,  should 
be  used. 

A  pound  of  alfalfa  contains  about  220,000  seeds.  If  evenly  sown  on 
an  acre  these  would  average  over  five  seeds  to  the  square  foot.  Alfalfa 
fields  one  year  old  rarely  contain  more  than  twenty  plants  to  the  square 
foot,  and  older  fields  usually  have  less  than  ten.  It  is  evident  from  this 
that  a  large  percentage  of  the  seeds  sown  fail  to  produce  plants.  It  is  very 
important  that  a  full  stand  be  secured  on  all  parts  of  the  field.  Vacant 
spots  give  an  opportunity  for  grass  and  weeds  to  start,  and  these  encroach 
upon  the  alfalfa. 

The  percentage  of  hard  seeds  in  some  lots  runs  very  high  and  necessi- 
tates treating  the  seed  to  increase  its  germination.  Hard  seeds  are  treated 
with  a  mechanical  device  through  which  they  are  passed  with  much  force, 
and  the  hard  coats  are  weakened  by  striking  against  a  hard,  rough  surface. 


124 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


ALFALFA   OUTYIELDS 
OTHER  HAY  CROPS 


Alfalfa  seed  two  years  old  may  generally  be  used  with  safety.  Old  seed  can 
be  detected  by  its  having  a  much  darker  color  and  less  luster  than  fresh 
seed.  Good  seed  will  usually  germinate  in  less  than  ten  days.  One 
hundred  seeds  placed  between  blotters  or  in  a  flannel  cloth  between  two 
dinner  plates  will  make  a  satisfactory  test. 

Need  for  Fertilizers  and  Lime. — In  the  western  half  of  North  America 
commercial  fertilizers  and  lime  are  seldom  needed  for  alfalfa,  but  in  the 
eastern  half  these  are  frequently  of  great  importance.  Large  crops  of 

alfalfa  remove  from  the  soil  consider- 
able quantities  of  lime  and  the  essen- 
tial mineral  plant  foods.  For  this 
reason,  large  crops  cannot  be  main- 
tained except  on  fertile  soils  or  soils 
that  are  well  supplied  with  plant  food 
and  lime;  400  or  500  pounds  of  a  fer- 
tilizer containing  about  10  per  cent  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  6  to  8  per  cent  of 
potash  should  be  applied  at  the  time 
of  seeding.  If  the  field  is  continued 
in  alfalfa  for  several  years  it  should  be 
top  dressed  with  manure  or  commer- 
cial fertilizer  every  year  or  two. 
There  is  no  danger  of  getting  the  soil 
too  rich  for  alfalfa.  Manure  should 
be  used  that  is  as  free  from  wreed  and 
grass  seeds  as  possible.  Their  intro- 
duction into  the  alfalfa  should  be  guarded  against,  and  the  alfalfa  culti- 
vated for  weed  destruction  if  necessary. 

Alfalfa  has  but  little  tolerance  for  scil  acidity.  It  removes  much  lime 
from  the  soil  and  grows  best  on  soils  well  supplied  with  lime.  Soils  should 
be  tested  for  acidity  before  seeding  to  alfalfa,  and  a  liberal  supply  of  lime 
provided  wherever  there  is  any  indication  of  its  need.  It  is  immaterial  in 
what  form  this  is  applied.  The  finely  pulverized  raw  limestone  is  fully 
as  effective  as  equivalent  amounts  in  any  other  forms. 

Preparation  of  Seed-Bed. — Alfalfa  demands  a  finely  pulverized,  moist, 
fairly  compact  seed-bed,  free  of  weeds.  This  can  generally  be  best  provided 
by  devoting  the  land  during  the  preceding  year  to  an  inter-tilled  crop, 
such  as  corn,  potatoes  or  tomatoes.  The  preceding  crop,  if  liberally 
manured,  will  obviate  the  necessity  of  applying  manure  directly  for  the 
benefit  of  alfalfa.  This  has  the  advantage  of  permitting  weed  and  grass 
seeds  in  the  manure  to  germinate  and  be  destroyed.  The  residual  effect 
of  the  manure  will  be  sufficient  to  start  the  alfalfa.  The  best  seed-bed 
can  be  secured  by  plowing  late  in  the  spring  and  disking  or  harrowing 
at  intervals  of  ten  days  or  two  weeks  until  the  first  half  of  August. 
Such  treatment  pulverizes  the  soil,  compacts  it,  conserves  soil  moisture 


ALFALFA  OUT-YIELDS  OTHER  HAY  CROPS. 


ALFALFA  125 


and  destroys  weeds.  It  provides  an  ideal  seed-bed  on  which  alfalfa  may 
be  seeded. 

Time,  Rate,  Depth  and  Manner  of  Seeding. — Alfalfa  may  be  seeded 
either  in  the  spring  or  late  summer.  In  the  western^  half  of  the  United 
States  spring  seeding  predominates.  In  the  eastern  half,  summer  seeding 
is  more  certain.  Seeding  either  very  early  in  the  spring  or  too  late  in  the 
season  should  be  avoided.  A  satisfactory  stand  is  more  certain  when  the 
seeding  is  made  on  soil  that  is  sufficiently  warm  to  produce  prompt  germi- 
nation of  the  seed  and  rapid  growth  of  the  young  plants.  At  40  degrees 
north  latitude  spring  seeding  may  be  made  during  the  last  part  of  April 
or  early  May.  Northward  or  at  considerable  elevations  the  date  should  be 
a  little  later,  while  southward  or  at  low  elevations  it  may  be  a  little  earlier. 
For  latitude  40  degrees  north,  late  summer  seeding  should  generally  be 
during  the  first  half  of  August,  northward  it  may  be  a  little  earlier,  and 
southward  considerably  later  depending  on  latitude.  In  any  event  there 
should  be  sufficient  time  for  the  alfalfa  to  become  well  established  and 
make  considerable  growth  before  winter  sets  in. 

The  rate  of  seeding  varies  greatly,  but  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  advised. 
In  the  western  half  of  the  United  States  seeding  generally  ranges  from  ten 
to  twenty  pounds  per  acre.  Where  grown  under  the  dry  land  system  of 
farming,  five  to  ten  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  often  gives  satisfactory  results. 

The  seed  should  be  covered  anywhere  from  one-half  inch  to  two 
inches  in  depth,  depending  on  character  of  soil  and  presence  of  moisture. 
The  manner  of  seeding  must  be  determined  by  local  conditions  and  avail- 
able machinery.  Alfalfa  drills  are  advised  when  they  are  available.  The 
most  of  the  seed,  however,  is  sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  the  harrow. 
Summer  seeding  is  made  without  a  nurse  crop  and  spring  seeding  generally 
with  a  nurse  crop.  The  principal  nurse  crops  are  winter  wheat,  rye,  spring 
oats  and  barley.  Barley  is  considered  preferable  to  oats,  and  winter  rye 
seeded  in  the  spring  is  considered  best  of  all.  The  nurse  crops  should  be 
seeded  rather  thinly  in  order  to  encourage  the  growth  of  the  alfalfa. 

Inoculation. — West  of  the  Missouri  River  the  soil  seldom  needs 
inoculation  for  the  successful  growth  of  alfalfa.  East  of  that,  however, 
inoculation  is  generally  necessary.  Wherever  sweet  clover  is  not  a  common 
weed  and  wherever  alfalfa  has  never  been  grown,  it  is  always  advisable  to 
inoculate  this  crop. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  inoculation:  (1)  by  soil  transfer, 
(2)  by  artificial  cultures.  Inoculation  by  soil  transfer  is  simple,  easy  and, 
with  reasonable  precautions,  generally  successful.  It  consists  in  securing 
from  a  well-established  field  or  from  a  field  where  sweet  clover  grows,  soil 
from  that  portion  of  the  root  zone  where  nodules  are  most  abundant. 
This  is  transferred  to  the  new  field  and  spread  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  300 
to  500  pounds  per  acre,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  by  disking  or 
harrowing.  The  inoculated  soil  should  be  spread  on  a  cloudy  day,  or  in 


126 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


the  morning  or  evening,  and  the  field  thoroughly  disked  and  harrowed 
at  once. 

When  soil  must  be  secured  from  a  long  distance  the  freight  charges, 
cartage,  bags,  etc.,  may  make  it  costly,  in  which  case  smaller  amounts  may 
be  used  and  more  time  allowed  for  the  inoculation  to  develop.  Certain 
precautions  are  advised  relative  to  the  introduction  of  noxious  weeds  in  this 
way.  If  alfalfa  is  to  be  grown  rather  extensively,  it  is  economical  to  first 
seed  a  narrow  strip  of  alfalfa  through  the  center  of  the  field  and  thoroughly 


A  STANDING  FIELD  OP  ALFALFA.* 

inoculate  it.  At  the  end  of  one  year  this  will  serve  as  a  source  of  inoculation 
for  the  entire  field,  and  a  suitable  drill  or  fertilizer  distributor  may  be 
used  going  back  and  forth  across  the  field  at  right  angles  to  this  strip,  and 
filling  the  distributor  from  the  soil  of  the  strip  each  time  the  machine  passes. 
Artificial  cultures  have  recently  been  developed  and  may  be  secured 
from  a  number  of  sources.  By  carefully  following  directions,  they  are 
generally  successful.  The  artificial  cultures  are  applied,  according  to 
instructions,  directly  to  the  seed  so  that  the  bacteria  are  introduced  into  the 
soil  on  the  seed  and  immediately  where  the  young  plants  start  growth.  In 
this  way  the  minimum  number  of  bacteria  accomplish  the  maximum  result. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


ALFALFA  127 


After-Treatment. — The  after-treatment  of  alfalfa  is  more  important 
than  in  case  of  the  clovers  and  grasses.  Clipping  the  alfalfa  at  the  close 
of  its  first  season  has  been  quite  generally  recommended,  but  is  a  doubtful 
practice  so  far  as  direct  benefit  to  the  alfalfa  is  concerned.  If,  however, 
weeds  and  grasses  are  abundant,  or  if  the  alfalfa  was  seeded  early  and  is 
blooming  rather  freely,  clipping  in  the  fall  is  advised.  The  clipping  should 
be  so  timed  as  to  prevent  maturing  of  weed  seeds.  The  alfalfa  should  be 
clipped  rather  high  and  the  clippings  left  on  the  field  for  winter  protection. 

Winter  killing  of  alfalfa  is  most  severe  during  the  first  winter  and  in 
severe  climates  or  on  soils  subject  to  heaving.  Winter  protection  by 
mulching  or  otherwise  is  advised.  The  more  hardy  varieties  of  alfalfa  will 
stand  a  temperature  twenty  to  thirty  degrees  below  zero  if  the  soil  is  rea- 
sonably dry.  The  chief  trouble  occurs  as  a  result  of  the  plants  being  heaved 
out  of  the  soil  by  repeated  freezing  and  thawing,  generally  toward  the  close 
of  the  winter. 

Disking  and  harrowing  alfalfa  fields  have  been  frequently  recom- 
mended for  the  purpose  of  killing  weeds  and  grass,  for  loosening  the  soil  and 
for  splitting  the  crowns  of  the  alfalfa  plants.  The  improvement  of  soil  and 
destruction  of  weeds  is  justifiable,  but  injury  to  the  alfalfa  plants  should 
always  be  avoided.  Under  favorable  conditions  considerable  injury  may 
not  prove  serious,  but  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  injury  to  the 
crowns  of  the  plants  results  in  decay  of  the  roots  and  shortens  their  life. 
The  ordinary  disk  is,  therefore,  not  recommended.  Suitable  harrows  and 
the  spike-toothed  alfalfa  disk  harrow  may  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
The  spring-toothed  harrow  with  the  teeth  brought  to  a  sharp  point  is 
recommended.  There  is  enough  spring  in  the  teeth  so  that  they  will  pass 
around  the  crowns  of  the  alfalfa  plants  without  serious  injury,  and  at  the 
same  time  will  uproot  small  weeds  and  grasses. 

Cultivation  should  take  place  just  after  cutting,  and  is  generally  not 
necessary  during  the  first  year  of  the  alfalfa. 

Making  Alfalfa  Hay. — The  time  of  cutting  alfalfa  should  be  carefully 
regulated  in  order  not  to  injure  it.  If  cut  too  early  the  second  crop  is  slow 
in  starting  and  the  exposed  crowns  of  the  plants  may  be  injured  by  hot,  dry 
weather.  Neither  is  it  advisable  to  delay  the  cutting,  for  this  will  result 
in  clipping  off  the  new  shoots  that  produce  the  new  crop.  Alfalfa  should  be 
cut  for  hay  when  the  small  shoots  starting  from  the  crown  and  which 
produce  the  next  crop  are  one-half  inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length. 
At  this  time  about  one-tenth  of  the  blossoms  will  usually  be  out.  In  the 
eastern  part  of  North  America  leaf  spot  is  quite  common  and  spreads 
rapidly  through  the  field  as  the  plants  approach  the  hay-making  stage.  If 
this  trouble  is  very  prevalent  the  leaves  fall  rapidly  and  harvesting  should 
be  hastened  somewhat  to  prevent  loss.  A  fair  degree  of  maturity  of  the 
alfalfa  makes  the  curing  of  hay  easier  than  if  cut  when  too  succulent.  In 
the  western  half  of  the  United  States  there  is  very  little  difficulty  in  this 
respect.  Weather  conditions  are  more  favorable  and  hay  of  good  quality 


128 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


can  be  made  with  the  minimum  amount  of  labor.  In  the  eastern  half  of 
the  country  rains  are  prevalent,  especially  at  the  time  of  the  first  cutting. 
This  calls  for  special  precautions  and  often  necessitates  extra  labor  and  the 
use  of  canvas  covers  to  secure  hay  without  serious  injury. 

It  is  advised  to  cut  in  the  evening  and  early  morning,  and  follow  the 
mower  with  the  tedder  before  any  of  the  leaves  become  dry.  The  second 
teddering  at  right  angles  to  the  first  is  advised  if  the  alfalfa  is  heavy. 
With  favorable  weather  it  may  be  possible  to  put  the  alfalfa  in  the  windrow 
toward  evening  of  the  first  day.  One  more  day's  exposure  in  the  windrow 
under  favorable  conditions  will  generally  cure  it  sufficiently  to  go  directly 

to  stack  or  mow. 
This  reduces  handling 
to  the  minimum  and 
prevents  loss  by 
shattering. 

If  weather  condi- 
tions are  threatening, 
it  will  be  best  to  put 
into  moderate-sized 
shocks  at  the  close  of 
the  first  day,  and 
cover  with  canvas  to 
protect  from  rains. 
It  requires  from  three 
to  seven  days  to  cure 
in  the  shock,  depend- 
ing on  weather  condi- 
tions. 

A  little  more  than 

two-fifths  of  alfalfa  hay  is  leaves  and  about  three-fifths  stems.  The 
leaves,  however,  contain  fully  three-fifths  of  the  protein.  It  is,  therefore, 
advisable  to  save  the  leaves  as  fully  as  possible.  Do  not  rake  or  tedder 
alfalfa  in  the  middle  of  the  day  if  dry.  This  is  sure  to  shatter  the  leaves 
and  cause  serious  loss. 

Number  of  Cuttings  and  Yield. — Alfalfa  is  a  remarkable  hay  and  forage 
plant  because  of  its  long  life  and  the  frequency  with  which  it  may  be  cut 
every  year.  The  number  of  cuttings  varies  with  the  locality  and  ranges 
from  two  or  three  cuttings  in  the  provinces  of  Canada  and  the  northern  tier 
of  states  to  as  many  as  ten  or  eleven  cuttings  annually  in  the  Imperial  Valley 
in  California.  In  the  warmer  portions  of  Texas  seven  or  eight  cuttings 
are  not  uncommon.  In  most  parts  of  the  country,  a  second  crop  may  be 
harvested  within  from  thirty  to  forty  days  after  the  first  cutting.  In  warm 
regions  where  the  growing  season  is  long,  cuttings  during  this  season  may 
be  made  about  every  five  weeks. 


CUBING  ALFALFA  HAY  IN  SHOCKS.* 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


ALFALFA 


129 


ALFALFA 


BALANCES 
THE  CORN 


RATION 


KANS.  EXP.-I4  PIGS-  I8O 


The  yield  is  generally  largest  for  the  first  cutting  of  the  season  and 
declines  slightly  for  subsequent  cuttings.  Much,  however,  will  depend 
upon  rainfall  and  available  moisture  which  influences  the  growth. 

Alfalfa  yields  about  twice  as  much  as  red  clover  and,  being  richer  in 
protein,  produces  about  three  times  as  much  protein  per  acre. 

Other  Uses  of  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  makes  an  excellent  soiling  crop  and 
produces  a  succulent  nitrogenous  roughage,  especially  desirable  for  dairy 
cows.  Since  it  may  be  cut  three  or  more  times  each  season  it  may  be  quite 
extensively  used  for  this  purpose.  It,  therefore,  takes  a  very  important 
place  in  a  soiling  sys- 
tem wherever  it  can 
be  satisfactorily 
grown. 

The  last  cutting 
of  alfalfa  comes  at 
about  the  right  time 
to  combine  with  corn 
for  the  making  of  en- 
silage. One  load  of 
alfalfa  to  every  three 
or  four  loads  of  corn 
makes  an  excellent 
combination.  Alfalfa 
is  sometimes  made 
int-o  silage  by  itself, 
but  makes  a  rather 
sour,  slimy  product. 

While  alfalfa  is 
not  a  pasture  plant 
and  is  easily  injured 
by  pasturing,  it  may 
be  used  especially  for 

young  stock  and  for  swine.  It  makes  a  most  excellent  pasture  for  the 
latter,  and  where  it  is  to  be  used  for  this  purpose  will  carry  about  forty 
pigs  and  their  dams  per  acre  without  being  injured.  It  is  generally 
thought  advisable  to  divide  the  field  into  two  or  three  parts,  pasturing  one 
part  for  a  period,  and  then  turning  into  another  part.  Frequently  some 
hay  may  be  harvested  in  addition  to  pasturing. 

Alfalfa  makes  a  range  for  poultry  and  may  also  be  fed  to  poultry  and 
swine  in  the  form  of  hay. 

Composition  and  Feeding  Value. — The  composition  of  alfalfa  is  given 
in  Table  I  in  Part  III.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  alfalfa  hay  is  about 
1  to  4.  Extensive  experiments  at  a  number  of  experiment  stations 


CORN  &  WATER 

IN  DRY   LOT 

I  BO  DAYS 


CORN   & 

ALFALFA  PASTURE 
80  DAYS 

CORN    & 

ALFALFA   HAY 

100  DAYS 


KANS.  BUL.  192 


COMPARISON  OP  HOGS  FED  ON  CORN  AND  ON  ALFALFA.*- 


1  Courtesy  of  The  International  Harvester  Company,  Agricultural  Extension  Department, 
pamphlet  "Livestock  on  Every  Farm." 


From 


130  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

have  clearly  demonstrated  the  high  feeding'value  of  alfalfa.  Experiments 
with  forty  cows  covering  a  period  of  two  years  at  the  New  Jersey  Experi- 
ment Station  clearly  demonstrated  that  eleven  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  were 
equal  in  feeding  value  to  eight  pounds  of  wheat  bran.  Plenty  of  alfalfa 
as  roughage  materially  reduces  the  bills  for  the  purchase  of  protein  in 
costly  concentrates. 

The  hay  is  exceedingly  palatable  and  highly  digestible  and  is  eaten 
with  avidity  by  all  classes  of  livestock.  When  fed  to  horses  the  ration 
should  be  limited.  Horses,  if  allowed  to  eat  their  fill,  generally  consume 
nearly  twice  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  provide  the  required  protein  of  their 
ration.  This  results  in  unnecessary  waste  of  feed.  Alfalfa  hay  and  corn 
make  a  good  combination,  since  the  corn  tends  to  properly  balance  the 
ration. 

Considerable  alfalfa  hay  is  made  into  alfalfa  meal  for  shipment  to  the 
eastern  markets  and  is  quite  extensively  used  in  rations  for  dairy  cattle 
and  also  for  poultry. 

Irrigation  of  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  exceptionally  well  adapted  to  irriga- 
tion and  a  large  portion  of  that  grown  in  North  America  is  irrigated.  The 
amount  of  water  to  use  will  be  determined  chiefly  by  the  character  of  the 
soil  and  rainfall  of  the  region.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  irrigate  rather  liber- 
ally and  at  rather  remote  intervals.  Alfalfa  is  so  deep-rooted  that  the  soil 
should  be  thoroughly  wet  to  the  depth  of  three  feet  or  more.  Ordinarily, 
one  good  irrigation  should  produce  a  full  cutting  of  alfalfa.  It  is,  therefore, 
customary  to  irrigate  the  fields  immediately  after  the  hay  is  removed  and 
this  irrigation  should  be  sufficient  to  last  until  the  next  cutting.  With 
this  system  certain  precautions  are  called  for  such  as  to  prevent  the  scalding 
of  the  young  and  tender  shoots  that  are  just  starting  to  grow  at  this  time. 
Where  fields  are  deeply  and  rapidly  flooded  with  water  carrying  much  sedi- 
ment, a  deposition  on  the  young  shoots  frequently  causes  injury.  It  is 
advisable  to  irrigate  carefully,  providing  for  slow  movement  of  the  water 
across  the  fields  without  attaining  any  considerable  depth  at  any  point. 
Over-irrigation  is  to  be  avoided,  since  it  not  only  wastes  water,  but  often 
causes  a  rise  in  the  ground-water  table  and  brings  alkali  salts  to  the  surface 
of  the  soil. 

Winter  irrigation  is  practiced  in  some  localities  where  the  winters  are 
mild  and  where  water  is  abundant  at  this  time  of  the  year.  The  principal 
object  is  to  conserve  water  which  would  otherwise  go  to  waste.  This  is 
especially  desirable  where  water  is  scarce  in  summer.  Such  winter  irriga- 
tion will  often  result  in  one  good  crop  that  could  otherwise  not  be  secured. 

Seed  Production. — The  production  of  alfalfa  seed  in  North  America 
is  confined  chiefly  to  the  semi-arid  regions.  East  of  the  Missouri  River 
the  production  of  seed  is  small,  except  when  drought  prevails.  It  is 
estimated  that  about  one-half  of  the  seed  used  in  North  America  is  produced 
on  irrigated  lands  in  regions  of  dry  summers.  There  is  also  a  considerable 
amount  produced  on  unirrigated  semi-arid  lands,  and  such  seed  is  con- 


ALFALFA 


131 


sidered  preferable  for  dry  farming  purposes.  When  produced  on  unirri- 
gated  lands  alfalfa  is  seeded  very  thinly.  In  some  cases  it  is  seeded  in  rows 
sufficiently  far  apart  to  permit  of  cultivation.  Isolated  plants  that  can 
branch  abundantly  and  receive  plenty  of  sunlight,  seed  more  abundantly 
than  when  they  are  close  together.  When  grown  under  irrigation,  irriga- 
tion water  is  withheld  during  the  period  of  seed  formation.  The  presence 
of  rains  or  the  application  of  water  stimulates  the 
vegetative  growth  and  reduces  seed  production. 
Usually  the  second  crop  is  utilized  for  seed  pro- 
duction, although  in  the  extreme  Northern  states  the 
first  crop  is  necessarily  used.  There  are  various 
conditions  that  influence  the  yield  of  seed,  such  as 
thickness  of  stand,  moisture  supply,  conditions  favor- 
able to  pollination,  etc.  Yields  of  as  much  as  twenty 
bushels  per  acre  have  been  reported,  but  eight  bush- 
els are  considered  a  good  yield.  Two  to  five  bushels 
probably  represent  the  average  crop. 

Little  is  known  relative  to  seed  production  east 
of  the  Missouri  River,  although  numerous  observa- 
tions have  shown  that  plants  frequently  seed  quite 
abundantly.  In  the  corn  belt  it  is  quite  possible 
that  certain  crops  could  be  used  for  seed  to  good 
advantage. .  The  probable  yield  of  seed  is  indicated 
if  the  crop  has  been  in  bloom  for  some  time  and 
considerable  seed  is  set  before  new  shoots  appear. 
If  dry  weather  prevails  when  these  conditions  are 
evident  there  is  a  fair  chance  of  a  crop  of  seed. 

The  hope  of  securing  varieties  adapted  to  eastern  conditions  lies  in  the 
possibility  of  seed  production  in  the  various  localities. 

The  method  of  harvesting  the  seed  of  alfalfa  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  for  red  clover. 


A  WELL-SET  CLUSTER 
OF  ALFALFA  Poos.1 


REFERENCES 


[  The  Book  of  Alfalfa." 
'Alfalfa  in  America." 


Coburn. 
Wing. 

"Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them,"  pages  118-193,  Shaw. 
Missouri  Extension  Service  Circular  6.   "Growing  Alfalfa  in  Missouri." 
Delaware  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  110.    "Alfalfa." 

Wisconsin  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  259.    "Alfalfa  Growing  in  Wisconsin." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  75.   "Alfalfa  Seed  Production." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

315.     "Legume  Inoculation." 

339.     "Alfalfa." 

495.     "Alfalfa  Seed  Production." 


Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept  of  Agriculture.    From  Farmers'  Bulletin  495. 


CHAPTER    10 

MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

Success  with  livestock  is  conditioned  on  the  production  of  good  grass. 
This  may  be  in  the  form  of  meadows  or  pastures,  but  a  combination  of  the 
two  is  generally  desirable.  In  latitudes  of  long  winters  the  importance  of 
meadows  may  predominate,  whereas  in  regions  of  short  winters,  pastures 
may  be  the  more  important.  With  minor  exceptions,  meadows  and 
pastures  are  the  most  economical  source  of  the  farm  income. 

As  a  rule,  the  highest  type  of  general  agriculture  includes  the  rearing 
of  farm  animals.  They  may  be  considered  machines  for  the  manufacturing 
of  the  roughage  produced  on  the  farm  into  more  concentrated  and  valuable 
products,  such  as  meat,  milk,  butter,  wool,  etc.  These  require  more  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  farmer  and  give  to  him  continuous  employment. 

Extent,  Value  and  Importance. — It  is  estimated  that  about  thirty 
per  cent  of  the  improved  land  in  the  United  States  is  pasture  land.  The 
largest  area  of  land  used  for  grazing  is  embodied  in  the  extensive  ranges 
lying  in  the  western  half  of  the  United  States.  To  this  range  land  and  the 
permanent  pastures  on  farms  may  be  added  large  deforested  areas  that  are 
capable  of  producing  pasture.  The  value  of  the  products  per  acre  from 
the  grazed  land  is  exceedingly  low,  but  since  the  area  is  so  large,  the  aggre- 
gate return  is  great.  The  return  per  acre  from  meadow  land  is  also 
comparatively  low,  but  much  larger  than  that  frcm  pasture  lands.  No 
statistics  are  available  by  which  to  estimate  the  returns  frcm  pasture 
lands,  although  there  are  fairly  accurate  statistics  for  the  meadows,  as 
indicated  in  the  chapter  on  "  Meadow  and  Pasture  Grasses." 

Essential  Qualities  of  Meadows  and  Pastures. — The  essential  qualities 
of  meadow  grasses  are  given  in  the  chapter  under  that  name.  It  is  not  so 
essential  that  meadows  become  permanent,  except  in  case  of  wet  land  or 
land  too  rough  or  stony  to  be  cultivated,  and  which  for  any  reason  cannot 
be  pastured. 

It  is  generally  important,  however,  that  pastures  be  made  as  permanent 
as  possible.  This  calls  for  a  mixture  of  grasses  that  are  either  very  long 
lived  or  that  are  capable  of  reproduction  under  pasture  conditions.  A 
good  pasture  should  start  growth  early  in  the  season  and  continue  to  produce 
until  late  in  the  fall.  The  grasses  should  be  palatable,  nutritious  and  present 
variety  and  give  abundant  growth.  They  should  also  form  a  continuous, 
compact  turf  that  will  withstand  much  tramping  by  animals.  A  variety 
of  grasses  that  will  provide  for  growth  under  both  moist  and  dry  soil 
conditions  is  also  advantageous.  The  deep-rooted  grasses  and  clovers 
can,  therefore,  be  advantageously  included  with  the  shallow-rooted  ones 

(132) 


i   »  PWA 


SHEEP  PASTURING  ox  HILLY  LAND.1 

Land  that  is  too  rough  or  steep  for  plowing  can  often  be  made  profitable  by  using 
it  for  grazing  purposes. 

1  Courtesy  of  "  The  Field.  Illustrated,"  X.  Y. 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


133 


such  as  blue  grass  and  white  clover.  The  latter  are  more  substantial,  both 
in  quality  of  grazing  and  in  the  character  and  durability  of  turf  which  they 
form.  » 

Advantages  of  Meadows  and  Pastures. — Where  land  is  moderate  to 
low  in  price  and  labor  is  costly,  no  feed  will  produce  results  with  cattle  and 
sheep  as  economically  as  good  pasture.  While  a  given  area  in  meadow  will 
produce  three  times  as  much  weight  in  hay  as  it  will  in  pasture,  yet  there 
is  about  three  times  as  much  protein  hi  a  given  weight  of  dry  material  in 
pasture  grass  as  there  is  in  the  same  material  in  hay.  The  increased  energy 
value  of  the  hay  over  that  of  an  equal  area  of  pasture  will  generally  be 
offset  by  the  increased  labor  required  in  harvesting  and  feeding  the  hay. 
Meadows  require  on  an  average  one  unit  of  man  and  horse  labor  per  acre 
annually.  This  consists  of  ten  hours  work  per  year.  The  cultivated  crops 


LIVE  STOCK  ON  PASTURE. 

require  from  two  to  as  high  as  fifteen  or  sometimes  twenty  units  of  labor 
per  acre. 

Pastures,  on  the  other  hand,  require  no  labor  unless  it  be  for  the  pur- 
pose of  applying  manure  or  fertilizers,  or  for  improvement  by  re-seeding  or 
cultivating.  It  is  from  the  standpoint  of  labor  that  meadows  and  pastures 
are  especially  economical.  When  land  values  become  exceptionally  high, 
farmers  may  be  justified  in  reducing  the  acreage  of  pasture  and  resorting 
to  cultivated  crops  as  a  source  of  feed  for  livestock.  This  is  an  economical 
problem  that  must  be  determined  by  local  conditions. 

Meadows  and  pastures  make  use  of  land  which  cannot  be  economically 
used  for  cultivated  crops.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  woodland 
pastures  or  pastures  along  streams  that  are  irregular  and  subject  to  over- 
flow. Stony  portions  of  farms  are  often  utilized  as  meadows  or  pastures. 
Irregular  corners,  cut  off  by  roads  or  streams,  are  more  economically 
devoted  to  hay  than  to  a  cultivated  crop  requiring  tillage. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Requirements. — Most  of  the  grasses  and  clovers 

I  succeed  best  in  moist,  cool  climates  and  on  soils  that  range  from  medium 

to  heavy  in  texture.    On  the  other  hand,  there  are  a  few  grasses  and  clovers 


134  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

that  succeed  in  regions  of  continuous  high  temperature.  There  are,  how- 
ever, no  regions  in  the  world  within  the  tropics  that  are  especially  promi- 
nent for  the  production  of  meadows  and  pastures.  These  attain  their 
greatest  perfection  in  temperate  climates  with  abundant  and  well-distrib- 
uted rainfall.  England  and  Scotland  represent  the  ideal  conditions  for 
meadows  and  pastures.  The  range  in  variety  of  grasses  and  clovers  makes 
possible  meadows  and  pastures  which  are  more  or  less  successful  in  all 
parts  of  North  America.  Of  course,  there  are  considerable  areas  of  sandy 
soils,  especially  in  the  warmer  sections,  that  are  impracticable  of  utiliza- 
tion in  this  way. 

Formation  of  Meadows  and  Pastures. — Since  meadows  and  pastures 
are  to  remain  for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  the  necessity  of  thorough 
preparation  for  their  establishment  is  more  imperative  than  in  case  of 
annual  crops.  The  successful  orchardist  goes  to  much  expense  in  the 
preparation  of  land  and  the  setting  of  trees  for  the  orchard,  realizing  that 
orcharding  is  a  long-time  proposition.  The  same  policy  is  applicable  in 
case  of  permanent  pastures  or  meadows.  The  shorter  the  period  of  time 
that  a  meadow  is  to  remain  as  such,  the  less  will  be  the  expense  justified 
in  its  establishment. 

The  first  consideration  is  the  adaptation  of  the  land  for  meadow  or 
pasture  purposes.  The  value  of  the  land  and  the  possibility  of  its  utiliza- 
tion for  other  purposes  should  be  considered.  Consideration  must  also  be 
given  to  the  variety  and  character  of  grasses  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate 
and  that  will  meet  the  requirement  of  the  livestock  to  be  pastured.  No 
definite  formula  can  be  given,  since  conditions  vary  greatly. 

Preparation  of  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  either  meadows  or 
pastures  should  begin  at  least  a  year  in  advance  of  the  time  of  seeding. 
There  are  two  things  essential  to  the  establishment  of  grasses  and  clovers, 
namely,  absence  from  weeds  and  a  good  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 
This  may  be  provided  by  growing  an  inter-tilled  crop  which  is  given 
thorough  cultivation  during  the  year  preceding  the  seeding  of  grass. 

Organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  decidedly  helpful  for  both  grasses  and 
clovers,  but  not  essential.  In  plowing  for  seeding  grasses  and  clovers, 
manure  and  organic  matter  should  not  be  turned  under  too  deeply,  but 
should  be  left  as  near  the  surface  as  possible.  A  thorough  preparation  of 
the  seed-bed  is  essential  for  both  meadows  and  pastures.  For  meadows, 
the  soil  should  not  only  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  made  moist  and 
compact,  but  should  also  be  level  to  facilitate  cutting  at  a  uniform  height. 
The  presence  of  hummocks  or  depressions  in  a  meadow  means  that  some 
of  the  plants  will  be  cut  close  to  the  crowns  and  others  cut  far  above. 

A  moist,  compact,  finely-pulverized  seed-bed  is  essential  in  pastures, 
but  it  need  not  be  necessarily  level,  since  animals  can  graze  with  as  much 
satisfaction  on  uneven  land. 

When  seeding  is  to  be  made  in  August  it  is  well  to  plow  the  land  in 
the  spring.  An  occasional  disking  or  harrowing  during  the  summer  will 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES  135 

destroy  the  weeds,  conserve  moisture  and  provide  a  pulverized  seed-bed 
for  the  grass.  It  is  advisable  to  plow  land  for  spring  seeding  of  grass  and 
clover  the  preceding  year,  or  at  least  several  weeks  ija  advance  of  seeding 
time,  in  order  that  it  may  become  thoroughly  settled  before  seeding. 

Meadow  and  Pasture  Seed  Mixtures. — From  the  standpoint  of  both 
variety  and  total  yield,  mixtures  give  best  results  in  both  meadows  and 
pastures.  Experiments  at  several  experiment  stations  report  yields  for 
mixtures  of  two  or  more  grasses  and  clovers  that  exceed  the  yield  of  any  of 
the  varieties  entering  into  the  mixture  when  seeded  alone  under  identical 
conditions.  There  are  a  few  exceptions,  namely,  that  of  alfalfa  which  is 
cut  several  times  a  year,  and  which  generally  gives  best  results  when  grown 
alone.  The  same  has  been  found  true  with  Italian  rye  grass. 

Mixtures  yield  better  than  pure  cultures  because:  (1)  the  require- 
ments of  the  different  plants  entering  into  the  mixtures  are  dissimilar  and 
do  not  make  them  direct  competitors  for  plant  food;  (2)  the  root  habits 
being  different,  their  distribution  through  the  soil  is  more  thorough; 
(3)  the  average  yearly  return  is  more  nearly  even  through  a  long  period  of 
time;  (4)  variation  in  light  requirements  of  different  plants  enable  some 
species  to  do  well  in  the^shade  of  taller  ones,  thus  increasing  the  quantity 
of  herbage;  and  (5)  legumes  mixed  with  grasses  increase  the  nitrogen 
supply  for  the  latter. 

As  before  indicated,  mixtures  for  mowing  purposes  should  contain 
only  plants  that  mature  near  the  same  time.  This  will  generally  confine 
the  mixture  to  two  or  three  species,  although  occasionally  a  larger  number 
may  be  advantageously  used.  Timothy  and  red  clover  constitute  the 
mixture  most  common  and  practical  over  a  large  region  of  the  hay-produc- 
ing district  of  North  America.  Redtop  and  alsike  clover  are  frequently 
included,  especially  where  soils  are  wet  and  inclined  to  be  sour.  Alsike 
clover  and  redtop  are  occasionally  used  without  the  timothy  and  red 
clover.  Orchard  grass  and  alsike  clover  work  well  together,  both  as  to 
character  of  growth  and  time  of  maturity. 

In  pasture  mixtures  there  is  opportunity  for  a  much  greater  variety 
and  wider  range  as  to  time  of  maturity  in  the  plants  used.  In  North 
America,  however,  mixtures  made  up  of  a  great  number  of  clovers  and 
grasses  are  rather  unusual,  although  these  seem  to  be  the  rule  in  pasture 
mixtures  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  so  diverse  that  it  is  impossible  to  enu- 
merate all  the  mixtures  suited  to  different  conditions  and  localities  for  any 
extensive  region  or  for  different  purposes.  Prominence  should  be  given, 
however,  to  those  grasses  that  are  best  adapted  to  local  conditions  and  best 
meet  the  needs.  One  or  more  species  that  will  make  quick  growth  and  give 
early  pasture  should  be  included  in  such  a  mixture.  The  following  general 
suggestions  are  offered : 

In  regions  adapted  to  Kentucky  blue  grass,  add  white  clover,  red  clover 
and  timothy. 

18 


136  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

On  wet  soils  adapted  to  redtop,  add  white  clover  and  alsike  clover. 

On  poor  upland  soils  use  redtop,  Canada  blue  grass  and  white  clover. 
Under  certain  conditions  brome  grass  may  be  included. 

Where  Bermuda  grass  thrives  best,  add  Lespedeza  clover,  bur  clover 
and  Italian  rye  grass. 

In  addition  to  the  grasses  mentioned,  orchard  grass  is  desirable,  because 
it  furnishes  early  pasture. 

If  there  is  any  doubt  relative  to  the  purity  of  the  grass  and  clover 
seeds  to  be  used,  a  sample  should  be  submitted  to  the  state  experiment 
station  for  examination  and  test.  One  familiar  with  grass  and  clover  seeds 
may  make  his  own  inspection  by  the  use  of  a  hand  lens,  and  may  also  make 
his  own  germination  test  by  the  use  of  white  blotting  paper  moistened  and 
placed  in  an  ordinary  dinner  plate  covered  with  another  to  retain  moisture. 
One  or  two  hundred  seeds  placed  between  the  blotters  and  kept  at  favorable 
temperature  will  enable  one  to  determine  the  percentage  of  germination. 
Careful  inspection  every  day  or  two  should  be  made  to  keep  the  blotters 
continuously  moist. 

Seeding  Grasses  and  Clovers. — A  full  crop  of  grass,  whether  for  a 
meadow  or  pasture,  necessitates  a  full  stand  of  plants.  The  first  essential 
to  this  is  the  requisite  number  of  viable  seeds,  well  distributed  on  every 
part  of  the  field.  There  are  many  factors  that  influence  the  stand  besides 
the  rate  of  seeding. 

Rates  of  seeding  for  the  different  grasses  and  clovers  when  used  alone 
are  given  in  the  chapter  on  "  Grasses  and  Clovers."  A  few  species  only 
enter  into  the  average  meadow  mixture.  As  a  rule,  the  ratio  of  the  amount 
of  seed  for  the  different  species  entering  into  a  meadow  mixture  will  be  a 
little  larger  than  the  amount  when  seeded  alone.  For  example,  timothy 
seeded  at  the  rate  of  15  pounds  alone  and  red  clover  at  the  rate  of  12 
pounds,  when  seeded  together  would  require  on  an  average  of  about  9 
pounds  of  timothy  and  7  pounds  of  clover,  making  a  total  of  16  pounds  as 
compared  with  one-half  of  the  sum  of  the  two  individual  rates,  which  would 
be  13|. 

The  depth  of  seeding  has  already  been  discussed  under  several  of  the 
species  of  grasses  and  clovers.  The  depth  in  case  of  mixtures  should  be 
regulated  with  even  more  accuracy  than  in  seeding  one  species  only.  It 
should  meet  as  accurately  as  possible  the  needs  of  the  leading  grasses  and 
clovers  in  the  mixture.  In  special  cases  it  may  be  found  advantageous  to 
drill  the  clovers  and  broadcast  the  smaller  grass  seeds,  such  as  timothy, 
redtop  and  blue  grass.  The  depth  is  also  controlled  largely  by  character 
of  soil  and  weather  conditions.  In  midsummer,  when  the  soil  is  dry  and  the 
temperature  high,  seeds  should  be  covered  rather  deeply.  In  the  cool, 
moist  portion  of  the  year,  very  shallow  covering  is  better.  In  no  case  can 
grass  and  clover  seeds  be  covered  more  than  two  inches  without  suffering 
much  loss.  With  the  smaller  grass  seeds,  one-half  inch  to  an  inch  is 
generally  sufficient. 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES  137 

The  time  of  seeding  is  subject  to  considerable  latitude,  but  there  are 
two  seasons  of  the  year  that  generally  give  best  results.  These  are  very 
early  in  the  spring  or  rather  late  hi  the  summer.  These  two  seasons  will  be 
subject  to  some  modification,  depending  upon  weather  conditions.  It 
is  wise  to  seed  when  the  soil  is  in  a  good  moisture  condition  so  as  to  insure 
quick  germination.  As  a  rule,  it  is  not  advisable  in  case  of  summer  seeding 
to  seed  just  before  a  heavy  rain.  Such  a  rain  compacts  the  soil  and  the 
hot  weather  that  is  likely  to  follow  will  form  a  crust  that  the  small  plants 
cannot  penetrate.  Seeds  deposited  in  a  dry  soil  may  be  germinated  by  a 
light  shower  followed  by  dry  weather  that  will  cause  the  small  plants  to 
perish. 

Grasses  seeded  in  summer  may  be  broadcasted  on  a  well-prepared 
seed-bed  immediately  following  the  harrow.  One  additional  harrowing 
will  sift  the  seeds  down  into  the  soil  and  effect  a  satisfactory  covering.  If 
the  soil  is  dry  the  first  harrowing  may  be  followed  by  the  plank  drag.  This 
will  mash  the  small  clods,  compact  the  soil,  bring  the  moisture  nearer 
the  surface  and  germinate  the  seed. 

The  manner  of  seeding  depends  largely  on  seasonal  condition  of  the 
soil  and  character  of  grass-seed  mixture.  Grasses  and  clovers  are  generally 
sown  broadcast.  There  are  a  number  of  forms  of  seeders.  The  grass-seed 
attachment  to  the  grain  drill  predominates  where  fall  seeding  with  wheat 
occurs.  It  is  also  extensively  used  where  the  drill  is  used  for  spring  seeding 
of  oats.  The  wheelbarrow  seeder  and  the  hand  seeder  are  extensively  used 
when  seeded  alone  or  on  grain  fields  where  drills  are  not  employed.  Slant- 
toothed  spike  harrows  are  most  generally  used  for  covering  the  seed  when 
broadcasted  in  this  way.  Brush  harrows  are  sometimes  used  when  the 
seed  is  very  small  and  the  seed-bed  very  mellow.  This  avoids  covering 
too  deeply.  In  any  case,  implements  should  be  used  that  do  not  tend  to 
drag  trash  or  soil  and  result  in  bunching  the  seed.  Much  seeding  is  done 
in  the  winter  and  very  early  spring  which  calls  for  no  covering.  In  this 
case  the  seed  is  covered  by  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  soil  and  by  rains 
and  winds. 

Late  fall  and  early  spring  seeding  usually  takes  place  with  a  nurse 
crop.  In  this  way  the  cost  of  seed-bed  preparation  is  charged  chiefly  to 
the  grain.  This  is  the  cheapest  possible  way  of  seeding  grass  other  than 
that  of  sowing  it  in  the  spring  to  be  covered  by  the  freezing  and  thawing  and 
rains.  The  nature  of  the  nurse  crop  is  important.  Moderately  thin  seeding 
and  the  use  of  early  varieties  generally  favor  a  good  catch  of  grass. 

Seeding  without  a  nurse  crop  calls  for  especially  well-prepared  seed- 
bed and  freedom  from  weeds.  Such  seeding  generally  does  best  in  the  late 
summer. 

Treatment  of  Meadows  and  Pastures. — Of  all  the  farm  crops,  the 
meadows  and  pastures  are  probably  the  most  neglected.  Meadows 
usually  receive  more  care  and  attention  than  pastures.  The  treatment 
accorded  meadows  will  consist  chiefly:  (1)  in  the  application  of  manures 


i  Courtesy  of  Virginia-Carolina  Chemical  Company,  -Richmond,  Va.  From  V.-  C.  Fertilizer  Crop 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES  139 

and  fertilizers,  (2)  re-seeding  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  in  case  of  failure 
(3)  cultivation  to  maintain  a  good  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  and  (4] 
cutting  of  weeds  when  they  become  serious.  * 

The  cultivation  given  to  meadows,  while  rather  unusual,  will  consisl 
mainly  in  disking  and  harrowing.  These  operations  will  frequently  be 
demanded  wherever  re-seeding  is  required  and  may  be  used  for  the 
destruction  of  weeds  and  the  loosening  of  the  soil.  There  are  now  or 
the  market  certain  forms  of  spiked  disks  designed  especially  for  this  type 
of  work. 

Cultivation  is  even  more  applicable  to  pastures  than  it  is  to  meadows 
Pastures  are  more  permanent,  or  at  least  remain  for  a  long  series  of  yean 
without  being  disturbed.  Certain  grasses  frequently  become  sod-bound 
As  a  result  of  close  grazing,  weeds  also  frequently  become  numerous.  The 
tramping  of  the  animals  tends  to  compact  the  soil.  Cultivation  is  benefi- 
cial for  all  of  these  difficulties.  Harrowing  spreads  the  droppings  of  the 
animals  and  affords  a  more  effective  distribution  of  the  manure  for  the 
benefit  of  the  grass. 

Meadows  should  not  be  maintained  for  too  long  a  period.  Bettei 
results  have  been  secured  by  plowing  and  re-seeding  than  to  continue  toe 
long  in  consecutive  crops  of  grass.  In  pastures  the  situation  is  much 
different.  There  are  records  of  pastures  forty  and  fifty  years  in  grass 
without  being  disturbed.  This  applies,  however,  to  those  regions  in  wine! 
the  soils  and  climate  are  especially  adapted  to  the  typical  pasture  grasses 
and  clovers,  such  for  example  as  Kentucky  and  Canada  blue  grass  and 
white  clover.  Where  pastures  are  prone  to  run  out  in  a  few  years,  it  h 
better  as  a  rule  to  re-seed.  This,  of  course,  applies  only  to  lands  that  are 
capable  of  cultivation  and  devotion  to  other  crops. 

Care  of  Meadows  and  Pastures. — The  life  of  a  meadow  and  the  main- 
tenance of  its  productivity  may  be  prolonged  by  exercising  certain  precau- 
tions in  connection  with  its  care  and  the  harvesting  of  the  crops.  It  is 
unwise  to  pasture  animals  or  to  haul  manure  onto  a  field  when  the  soil  is 
too  wet.  The  more  permanent  the  nature  of  the  meadow  the  greater 
should  be  the  care  exercised.  Meadows  should  go  into  the  winter  well 
protected  by  either  sufficient  second  growth  or  proper  mulching  with  ma- 
nure. It  is,  therefore,  unwise  to  closely  pasture  the  aftermath  of  meadows 
late  in  the  season.  In  favorable  years  a  moderate  amount  of  pasturing 
will  not  be  undesirable.  If  weeds  occur  in  considerable  numbers,  late 
summer  or  fall  clipping  to  prevent  seeding  is  advised. 

Pastures  should  not  be  grazed  too  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  undesir- 
able: (1)  from  the  standpoint  of  not  giving  the  grass  a  sufficient  start,  and 
(2)  through  injury  by  tramping  and  compacting  the  soil  when  it  is  wet. 
It  is  also  unwise  to  pasture  closely  too  late  in  the  fall,  since  pastures,  like 
meadows,  should  have  winter  protection.  It  is  never  wise  to  pasture  too 
closely  at  any  time  of  the  year.  Close  pasturing  reduces  the  vitality  of  the 
plants  and  their  subsequent  producing  capacity.  The  packing  of  the  soil 


140  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

by  animals  under  favorable  conditions  will  be  overcome  in  temperate 
climates  by  the  freezing  and  thawing  during  the  winter. 

In  grasses  the  growth  takes  place  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  and  lower 
portions  of  the  internodes,  so  that  grazing  does  not  destroy  the  plants 
unless  the  plants  or  portions  thereof  are  injured  below  the  point  of 
growth. 

The  grazing  capacity  of  a  pasture  will  be  determined  by  the  care  given 
to  it  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  grazed.  Its  grazing  capacity  should  be 
fully  utilized,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  pasture  will  be  maintained  fully 
as  well,  and  sometimes  better,  in  this  way  than  when  not  fully  grazed.  In 
pastures  that  are  not  fully  utilized  many  weeds  occur  that  go  to  seed  and 
result  in  weedy  pastures  within  a  few  years.  No  animals  are  better  for 
destroying  weeds  than  sheep,  although  all  classes  of  livestock  will  eat  most 
kinds  of  weeds  when  there  is  a  shortage  of  grasses.  There  are  few  experi- 
ments in  America  on  pastures  and  pasturing. 

Improvement  of  Meadows  and  Pastures. — "An  ounce  of  prevention 
is  worth  a  pound  of  cure"  applies  especially  to  meadows  and  pastures. 
This  is  pretty  thoroughly  covered  in  the  treatment  and  care  of  meadows 
and  pastures  discussed  in  the  preceding  topics.  Brush  pastures  may  be 
improved  by  removing  the  brush  by  clearing,  by  firing  or  by  pasturing  with 
goats.  The  latter  is  perhaps  the  most  economical  method,  provided  gcats 
can  be  secured  and  disposed  of  without  loss.  This  not  only  cleans  the 
pastures,  but  utilizes  the  removed  product  in  the  form  of  brush,  weeds,  etc. 

Wet  pastures  may  be  improved  by  underdrainage.  This  not  cnly 
encourages  the  growth  of  the  more  nutritious  and  better  grasses  and 
clovers,  but  protects  the  pasture  against  injury  through  tramping  ly 
animals  when  too  wet.  The  expense  of  drainage  for  pasture  land  must 
not  be  too  great. 

Manuring,  Fertilizing  and  Liming. — Sour  soils  should  be  liberally 
limed  when  prepared  for  meadows  or  pastures.  Meadows  that  are  to  be 
continued  for  several  years  may  be  top-dressed  with  lime  to  good  advan- 
tage, and  pastures  may  be  top-dressed  at  intervals  of  six  to  ten  years.  The 
benefits  from  liming  will  be  determined  chiefly  by  the  acidity  of  the  soil 
and  the  proportion  of  clovers  that  enter  into  the  meadow  and  pasture 
mixtures. 

Barnyard  and  stable  manure  is  advantageously  used  in  the  establish- 
ment of  meadows  and  pastures.  It  is  often  advisable  to  apply  the  manure 
to  the  crop  preceding  the  one  in  which  the  grass  is  seeded.  On  the  other 
hand,  meadows  that  are  to  remain  for  several  years  may  be  advantageously 
top-dressed  with  light  applications  of  manure,  greatly  to  the  benefit  of  the 
grass.  Such  top-dressing  has  been  found  profitable  wherever  manure  is 
available,  or  may  be  purchased  at  low  cost.  The  better  sod  resulting  is 
also  beneficial  to  the  crops  which  are  to  follow  the  meadow. 

It  is  unusual  to  apply  manure  to  pastures  once  established,  since  the 
droppings  of  the  animals,  if  properly  distributed,  go  far  towards  meeting 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES 


14fr 


the  needs  of  the  soil.     In  all  probability  the  manure  can  be  more  advan- 
tageously used  on  the  meadows  and  other  crops. 

Experiments  at  several  of  the  state  experiment  stations  have  demon- 
strated that  moderate  amounts  of  complete  commercial  fertilizers  can  be 
economically  used  on  meadows.  The  more  perfect  the  stand  of  grass,  the 
larger  the  increased  yields  resulting  from  such  treatment.  While  the  com- 
position of  the  fertilizer  will  differ  somewhat  for  different  soils  and  grasses, 
that  for  the  grasses  proper  should  contain  about  equal  percentages  of  thu 


GOOD  PASTURE  LAND.I 

three  fertilizing  constituents.  Nitrogen  is  essential  in  increasing  vegetative 
growth.  A  home-made  mixture  consisting  of  150  pounds  per  acre  each  of 
nitrate  of  soda  and  acid  phosphate,  and  50  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash,  is 
recommended.  This  should  be  applied  broadcast  very  early  in  the  spring 
just  as  the  grass  is  beginning  to  start. 

Since  nitrogen  is  so  expensive,  clovers  should  be  used  in  both  meadows 
and  pastures  for  the  benefit  of  the  grasses.  They  also  increase  the  protein 
content  of  both  the  hay  and  grazed  product. 

Utilizing  Aftermath. — The  amount  of  aftermath  or  second  growth  on 
meadows  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  grasses,  the  time  of  cutting  the  first 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y. 


142  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

crop  and  the  weather  conditions  which  prevail.  With  early  cutting  of  the 
first  crop  and  favorable  subsequent  weather  conditions,  the  second  crop 
may  be  as  large  and  well  worth  harvesting  for  hay.  Certain  precautions 
in  this  connection  are  necessary,  namely,  not  cutting  so  late  as  to  prevent 
further  growth  for  winter  protection.  There  is  no  objection  to  pasturing 
the  aftermath  if  not  pastured  too  closely  and  if  the  character  of  grasses  is 
such  as  not  to  be  seriously  injured  by  the  tramping  of  animals.  The  future 
life  and  use  of  the  pasture  will  be  a  factor  hi  this  connection. 

Capacity  of  Pastures. — The  capacity  of  pastures  varies  all  the  way 
from  fifty  acres  to  the  animal  unit  hi  case  of  the  range  pastures  of  the  West 
to  one  acre  per  animal  unit  on  first-class  pastures  in  humid  regions.  The 
capacity  is  also  measured  by  the  length  of  grazing  season,  and  this  is  depend- 
ent chiefly  upon  latitude  and  elevation.  It  is  also  influenced  by  the  nature 
of  the  pasture  grasses,  some  prolonging  their  growth  into  the  cooler  portion 
of  the  year.  Experiments  show  that  more  product  is  secured  as  hay  than 
can  be  secured  when  the  same  grasses  are  pastured.  This  has  been  deter- 
mined by  comparing  the  relative  yield  of  cuttings  at  short  intervals  with 
cutting  once  at  maturity.  Such  experiments  have  given  nearly  three  times 
as  much  dry  matter  hi  the  form  of  hay  as  was  secured  in  frequent  cuttings. 
The  protein  content  of  the  new  growth  was  much  higher  and  aggregated 
nearly  as  much  in  frequent  cuttings  as  in  the  matured  product. 

Pasture  experiments  in  Missouri  showed  .average  daily  gains  of  1.65 
and  1.85  pounds  for  yearlings  and  two-year-old  steers  respectively  during 
the  summer  season.  At  the  usual  charge  for  pasturage  in  that  state,  the 
estimated  cost  per  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight  was  $1.60  and  $1.90 
respectively.  Pasture  experiments  in  Virginia  covering  several  years  gave 
gains  in  live  weight  of  150  pounds  per  acre  annually.  This  was  on  average 
blue  grass  pasture  in  that  state.  The  average  pasture  in  the  humid  region 
should  produce  150  pounds  live  weight  in  cattle  per  acre  annually. 

Composition  and  Palatability  of  Pasture  Grass  and  Hay. — The  com- 
position of  various  kinds  of  grasses  and  hay  is  given  in  Table  I,  in 
Part  III.  The  composition  of  grass  mixtures  will  be  determined  by  the 
relative  portions  of  the  species  entering  into  it,  and  also  by  the  stage  of 
growth  when  harvested,  and  the  conditions  under  which  grown.  Nitro- 
genous fertilizers  have  been  found  to  somewhat  increase  the  protein  content 
of  the  grasses. 

The  palatability  and  digestibility  of  grasses  as  grazed  are  doubtless 
much  greater  than  those  for  mature  hay.  The  labor  required  for  harvesting 
the  hay  is  also  saved. 

Temporary  Pastures. — Temporary  pastures  are  generally  provided  to 
meet  early  needs  and  are  designed  for  short  periods.  They  consist  of 
annual  plants,  of  which  there  are  many  species.  These  will  be  determined 
by  soil  and  climatic  adaptation  and  the  character  of  animals  to  be  grazed. 
Oats,  sorghum  and  red  clover  make  a  good  combination.  Oats  make  rapid 
growth  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  while  sorghum  grows  more 


MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES  143 

rapidly  with  the  approach  of  warm  weather.  As  these  two  crops  are  becom- 
ing exhausted,  the  clover  takes  their  place.  This  mixture  is  suited  to  spring 
seeding  and  can  be  pastured  from  the  latter  part  of  June  to  the  close  of  the 
season.  Another  mixture  consists  of  spring  wheat,  barley  and  oats,  using 
about  one-third  of  the  usual  sowing  of  each.  These  may  be  pastured  as 
soon  as  they  attain  sufficient  size  to  afford  a  good  supply  of  pasturage. 
Another  mixture  frequently  used  consists  of  rye,  winter  wheat  and  winter 
vetch  sown  in  the  fall.  This  will  afford  pasture  in  the  spring  earlier  than 
the  spring-sown  grains,  and  if  seeded  fairly  early  may  furnish  some  winter 
pasture.  In  pasturing  the  annual  crops,  waste  by  tramping  may  be  pre- 
vented by  restricting  the  area  grazed  by  means  of  hurdles  or  temporary 
fences.  Such  pastures  require  knowledge  relative  to  the  date  crops  must 
be  sown  to  afford  pasture  when  needed.  In  this  respect  it  resembles  the 
provision  for  soiling  crops  which  are  to  be  cut  and  fed  from  day  to  day. 

REFERENCES 

"Meadows  and  Pastures."     Wing. 

"Forage  and  Fiber  Crops."     Hunt,  pages  1-274. 

"Farm  Grasses."     Spillman. 

Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  101.     "Meadows  and  Pastures." 


CHAPTER   11 

MISCELLANEOUS  ANNUAL  HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS 

Of  the  miscellaneous  annual  hay  and  forage  crops  the  legumes  take 
first  place.  They  are  important  both  from  the  standpoint  of  high  feeding 
value  and  of  the  benefit  derived  from  them  by  the  soil.  In  regions  adapted 
to  alfalfa  or  the  clovers,  annual  legumes  find  a  minor  place,  chiefly  as  substi- 
tutes when  for  any  reason  the  clovers  fail. 

Cowpeas  and  soy  beans  are  by  far  the  most  important  annual  legumes. 
The  former  are  especially  adapted  to  the  cotton  belt,  while  the  latter  may  be 
grown  wherever  corn  is  successfully  raised.  For  northern  latitudes,  Canada 
field  peas  and  winter  vetch  are  hardy  and  promising. 

Of  the  non-legumes,  the  millets  and  sorghums  rank  first  as  annual 
hay  and  forage  crops. 

COWPEAS 

The  cowpea  is  a  warm-weather  crop,  and  is  the  best  annual  legume 
for  the  entire  cotton  belt.  It  is  suited  for  the  production  of  both  hay  and 
seed.  It  is  seldom  grown  above  40  degrees  north  latitude,  and  in  the 
northern  limits  of  its  production  only  early-maturing  varieties  should  be 
used.  There  are  more  than  sixty  varieties  of  cowpeas,  differing  greatly  in 
size,  character  of  growth,  color  of  seeds  and  time  of  maturity.  Only  a  few 
of  them  are  extensively  grown. 

Varieties. — Whippoorwill  is  the  best  known  and  most  extensively 
grown  variety.  It  is  of  medium  maturity  and  well  adapted  for  making  hay. 
It  may  be  recognized  by  seed  which  has  a  mottled  chocolate  on  a  buff  or 
reddish  ground  color.  It  makes  a  vigorous  growth,  quite  erect  and 
produces  a  large  amount  of  vine.  It  can  be  handled  readily  by  machinery. 

Iron  is  also  a  well-known  variety,  and  is  especially  valuable  because  it 
is  practically  immune  to  root  knot  and  wilt,  diseases  which  cause  much 
trouble  with  cowpeas  in  many  parts  of  the  cotton  belt. 

New  Era  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  cowpea  varieties  and  is  adapted 
to  the  southern  portion  of  the  corn  belt.  Its  habit  of  growth  is  erect  with 
few  prostrate  branches,  thus  making  it  easy  to  cut  with  machinery.  It 
produces  a  heavy  crop  of  small  seed,  characterized  by  innumerable  minute 
blue  specks  on  a  gray  ground  color.  Because  of  the  small  seed,  less  quan- 
tity is  required  for  seeding. 

Unknown  or  Wonderful  is  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  largest  growing 
varieties  and  is  late  in  maturing.  It  is  quite  erect  and  is  handled  readily 
by  machinery,  either  for  hay  or  grain  production.  The  seed  is  large  and  of 
a  light  clay  color.  It  is  not  adapted  north  of  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee, except  in  a  few  localities  at  the  lower  altitudes. 

(144) 


ANNUAL  HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS   145 

Clay  is  the  most  variable  of  any  of  the  varieties,  and  the  name  is  given 
commercially  to  any  cowpeas  having  buff-colored  seeds,  except  the  Iron. 
For  this  reason  there  are  doutbless  many  varieties  that  masquerade  under 
this  name.  This  variety  is  vigorous,  but  of  a  trailyig  habit.  It  fruits 
sparingly  and  is  consequently  rather  unpopular  either  for  seed  or  hay 
purposes.  It  is  especially  valuable  for  pasturing  and  for  soil  improvement. 

Groit  is  very  similar  to  New  Era,  but  makes  a  slightly  larger  growth 
and  fruits  more  heavily. 

Black  is  a  variety  characterized  by  its  large  black  seeds  that  do  not 
[decay  rapidly  after  ripening,  even  after  lying  on  the  warm,  moist  earth. 


FIELD  OP  IRON  COWPEAS  PLANTED  IN  OXE-FIFTH-ROD  Rows  AND 
CULTIVATED  THREE  TIMES.  l 

It  is  especially  adapted  to  the  sandy,  coastal  plain  soils  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina.  It  is  also  popular  in  the  sugar-cane  section  of  Louisiana. 

Time,  Manner,  Rate  and  Depth  of  Seeding. — Cowpeas  should  not  be 
seeded  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  warm.  In  most  localities  the  date  of 
seeding  will  be  one  or  two  weeks  later  than  the  best  time  for  planting  corn. 
The  plants  are  tender  and  are  injured  by  the  slightest  frost. 

In  the  cotton  belt,  the  time  of  seeding  should  be  regulated  so  that 
when  harvested  for  hay,  the  proper  stage  of  maturity  will  occur  when  the 
weather  conditions  are  favorable  for  hay  making.  This  will  usually  be 
sometime  in  September. 

The  seed-bed  for  cowpeas  should  be  prepared  the  same  as  for  corn. 
The  planting  may  be  in  drills  or  by  broadcasting.  When  grown  for  seed 
it  is  generally  best  to  plant  in  drills  not  less  than  thirty  inches  apart  and 

1From  Farmers'  Bulletin  318,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


146  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

cultivate  the  same  as  for  corn.  Good  results,  however,  have  been  secured 
by  seeding  with  the  ordinary  grain  drill,  which,  of  course,  permits  of  no 
cultivation.  When  seed  is  costly,  the  saving  of  seed  by  drilling  in  rows 
thirty  inches  or  more  apart  may  offset  the  labor  of  cultivation.  When 
grown  chiefly  for  hay,  broadcasting  or  drilling  in  rows  close  together  is  best. 

The  rate  of  seeding  varies  from  one  to  eight  pecks  per  acre,  depending 
on  the  manner  of  seeding,  the  character  of  seed  and  the  purpose  for  which 
grown.  When  seeded  with  the  wheat  drill,  with  all  of  the  holes  open,  one 
bushel  of  seed  per  acre  will  give  good  results  for  hay  and  still  provide  for 
fair  yields  of  seed.  Small  seed  requires  less  in  planting  than  large,  and  less 
seed  is  required  for  seed  production  than  when  grown  for  forage. 

The  depth  of  seeding  will  depend  on  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
soil.  It  may  vary  from  one  to  four  inches.  The  looser  the  soil  or  the  drier 
the  seed-bed,  the  deeper  should  be  the  planting.  The  cowpea  is  really  a 
bean  and,  like  all  beans,  should  not  be  planted  too  deeply. 

Cowpea  seed  usually  costs  from  $2  to  $3  per  bushel. 

Seeding  with  Other  Crops. — There  are  two  principal  advantages  in 
seeding  cowpeas  with  other  crops,  namely,  the  production  of  a  better 
balanced  ration  when  used  as  forage,  and  the  increased  facility  with  which 
the  crop  may  be  harvested  and  cured  when  supported  by  upright  growing 
plants. 

The  best  crops  to  seed  with  cowpeas  are  corn,  sorghum  and  millet. 
These  are  all  similar  to  the  cowpea  in  soil  and  climatic  requirements.  It 
is  never  wise  to  seed  cowpeas  with  oats,  as  the  one  requires  warm  weather 
and  the  other  cool  weather  for  best  results. 

The  upright  growing  varieties  of  cowpeas  may  be  grown  with  corn, 
preferably  by  planting  both  corn  and  peas  in  rows  at  the  same  time.  By 
selecting  the  proper  variety  with  reference  to  habit  of  growth  and  time  of 
maturity,  the  cowpeas  may  be  harvested  at  the  same  time  with  a  corn 
harvester  and  used  for  making  ensilage. 

In  the  southern  portion  of  the  corn  belt  and  in  the  cotton  belt  cowpeas 
are  frequently  drilled  between  the  corn  rows  after  the  last  cultivation.  The 
pods  are  gathered  for  the  peas  and  the  vines  turned  under  for  the  benefit 
of  the  soil.  When  planted  with  corn,  the  cowpeas  should  be  four  or  five 
inches  apart  in  the  row  and  the  corn  about  twelve  inches  apart.  Best 
results  are  secured  by  using  a  cowpea  attachment  to  the  corn  planter. 

When  grown  for  hay,  seeding  with  sorghum  or  millet  gives  best  results. 
Sorghum  is  generally  preferable  to  millet,  because  it  has  a  somewhat 
longer  growing  season  and  makes  a  more  palatable  hay.  Best  results  are 
secured  by  mixing  the  seed  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  of  peas  to  one  bushel 
of  sorghum  and  seeding  with  a  wheat  drill  at  the  rate  of  one  and  one-half 
bushels  per  acre.  The  large  varieties  of  millet  may  be  used  with  the  early 
maturing  varieties  of  cowpeas. 

Fertilizers,  Tillage  and  Rotation. — Cowpeas  respond  to  moderate 
applications  of  phosphorus  and  potash,  but  do  not  need  nitrogen. 


ANNUAL  HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS    147 

When  planted  in  drills  sufficiently  far  apart  to  enable  cultivation, 
cowpeas  do  best  when  given  frequent,  shallow  and  level  cultivation.  The 
earth  should  not  be  thrown  on  the  foliage  and  tillage  should  cease  as  soon 
as  the  vines  begin  to  run. 

Cowpeas  are  adapted  to  short  rotations.  They  may  frequently  follow 
an  early-maturing  crop,  such  as  wheat,  oats  and  early  potatoes,  thus 
providing  two  crops  from  the  land  in  one  season.  A  rotation  of  wheat  or 
oats  and  cowpeas  is  giving  excellent  results  in  portions  of  Tennessee, 
Arkansas  and  Missouri. 

Time  and  Method  of  Harvesting. — For  hay  purposes  cowpeas  should 
be  cut  when  the  first  pods  begin  to  ripen.  A  large  growth  of  vines  is  some- 
what difficult  to  cure.  The  cut  vines  should  lie  in  the  swath  for  one  day. 
They  should  then  be  placed  in  windrows  wrhere  they  may  remain  until 
fully  cured.  If  weather  conditions  are  not  most  favorable  the  vines,  after 
remaining  one  or  two  days  in  the  windrow,  should  be  put  into  tall,  narrow 
cocks  and  left  to  cure  for  a  week  or  more.  If  rains  threaten,  canvas  covers 
are  advised. 

The  leaves  are  the  most  palatable  and  nutritious  portion  of  the  forage, 
and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  their  loss.  When  so  dry  that 
no  moisture  appears  on  the  stems  when  tightly  twisted  in  the  hands,  the 
hay  may  be  put  into  stack  or  mow. 

Harvesting  for  seed  is  most  cheaply  done  by  machinery.  The  crop 
should  be  cut  with  the  mowing  machine  or  self-rake  reaper  when  half  or 
more  of  the  pods  are  ripe.  When  thoroughly  dry  they  may  be  threshed  with 
the  ordinary  threshing  machine  by  removing  the  concaves  and  running  the 
cylinder  at  a  low  speed  to  prevent  breaking  the  peas.  Better  results  are 
secured  by  using  a  regular  cowpea  threshing  machine. 

Feeding  Value  and  Utilization. — Well-cured  cowpea  hay  is  superior 
to  red  clover  and  nearly  equal  to  alfalfa  hay.  It  is  very  high  in  digestible 
protein.  Experiments  relative  to  its  feeding  value  show  that  one  and  one- 
quarter  tons  of  chopped  cowpea  hay  is  equal  to  one  ton  of  wheat  bran.  It 
is  a  satisfactory  roughage  for  work  stock  and  for  beef  and  milk  production. 

SOY  BEANS 

Soy  beans  are  adapted  to  the  same  soil  and  climatic  conditions  as  corn. 
They  are  most  important  in  the  region  lying  between  the  best  clover  and 
cowpea  regions.  This  is  represented  by  Delaware,  Maryland,  West  Vir- 
ginia, Virginia,  Tennessee  and  the  southern  portion  of  the  corn  belt.  They 
do  well  on  soils  too  poor  for  good  corn  production,  but  are  not  so  well 
adapted  to  poor  soils  as  the  cowpea.  They  stand  drought  well. 

Varieties. — There  are  several  hundred  varieties  of  soy  beans,  but  only 
about  fifteen  are  handled  by  seedsmen.  The  most  important  of  these  are 
described  in  the  accompanying  tabulation.  The  selection  of  a  variety 
should  be  based  upon  time  of  maturity  as  related  to  the  length  of  season 
for  growth  and  the  purpose  for  which  grown.  For  seed  production,  good 


148 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


seed .  producers  should  be  selected,  and  for  hay  and  ensilage  the  leafy 
varieties  are  better. 

Time,  Method,  Rate  and  Depth  of  Seeding. — The  seed-bed  for  soy 
beans  should  be  prepared  the  same  as  for  corn,  and  the  seed  may  be  sown 
broadcast  or  drilled,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which  grown.  On  land 
that  is  not  weedy  the  seed  may  be  drilled  solid  with  a  grain  drill.  About 
one  bushel  of  soy  beans  should  be  used  per  acre  and  they  should  be  covered 
with  one  to  two  inches  of  soil.  If  land  is  weedy  or  if  crop  is  grown  for  seed 
the  corn  planter  may  be  used,  the  rows  narrowed  to  three  feet  if  possible 

LEADING  VARIETIES  OF  SOY  BEANS  AND  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS. 


VARIETY. 

COLOB 
OP 

SEED. 

NUMBER 
OF  SEEDS 
PER  LB. 

TIME 

OF 

MATURITY. 

PURPOSE 
TO  WHICH 
ADAPTED. 

HABITS  or  GROWTH. 

Mammoth. 

Yellow. 

2100 

Late, 
120  to  150 
days. 

Roughage  and 
grain  for 
entire  South. 

Large  and  bushy;  3  to  5  feet  high.      Will 
not   mature   seed   north   of   Virginia   and 
Kentucky. 

Hollybrook. 

Yellow. 

2100 

Medium, 
110  to  130 
days. 

Principally 
for  seed. 
South. 

Three  feet  or  less;   coarse;    poor  for  hay. 
Not  so  valuable  as  Mammoth. 

Haberlandt. 

Yellow. 

2400 

Medium-early, 
100  to  120 
days. 

Principally 
for  seed. 
South. 

Stocky;  seldom  more  than  30  inches  tall. 

Medium  Yellow 
or 
Mongol. 

Yellow,  with 
pale  hilum. 

3500 

Medium-early, 
100  to  120 
days. 

Forage. 

Erect;  bushy;  2}  to  3  feet. 

Guelph  or 
or 
Medium  Green. 

Green. 

2600 

Early, 
90  to  100 
days. 

Principally 
for  seed. 
North. 

Coarse;    not  satisfactory  for  hav;    stout  and 
bushy;    1J  to  2  feet.    Seed  shatters  easily. 

Ito  San. 

Yellow,  with 
pale  hilum. 

3200 

Early, 
90  to  110 
days. 

Hay  and  seed. 
North. 

Bushy,  with  slender  stems;   2  to   2J   feet. 
Much  grown  in  North. 

Wilson. 

Black, 
yellow  germ. 

2400 

Medium-early, 
100  to  120 
days. 

Hay  and  seed. 

Tall,  slender;  3  to  4  feet.     Excellent  for 
hay. 

Peking. 

Black, 
yellow  germ. 

6300 

Medium, 
110  to  130 
days. 

Hay  and  seed. 

Bushy  with  slender,   leafy   stems;  2J  to   3 
feet.    Shatters  very  little. 

Sable. 

Black. 

Hay  and  silage. 

and  the  seed  drilled  two  inches  apart  in  the  row.  This  should  require  not 
more  than  one-half  bushel  per  acre.  The  drill  will  accomplish  the  same 
result  if  every  fifth  drill  hoe  is  used  and  the  planting  is  made  in  rows  for 
cultivation. 

Seeding  should  not  take  place  until  danger  of  frost  is  past.  In  the 
Central  states  it  is  safe  to  seed  as  late  as  July  1st,  and  further  south  seeding 
may  take  place  later.  Soy  beans  are  adapted  to  seeding  with  corn  to  be 
used  as  ensilage,  in  which  case  varieties  should  be  used  that  mature  about 
the  same  time  as  the  corn  with  which  planted.  This  mixture  is  also  well 
adapted  for  hogs  and  they  may  be  turned  into  the  field  as  soon  as  the  corn 
reaches  the  roasting-ear  stage. 


ANNUAL  HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS   149 

Inoculation,  Tillage  and  Fertilizers. — On  land  which  has  not  before 
grown  soy  beans  it  is  advisable  to  inoculate,  either  by  soil  transfer  or  by 
artificial  cultures.  When  sown  in  rows,  inoculated  soil  may  be  put  into  the 
fertilizing  box  and  distributed  with  the  beans  at  tirAe  of  planting.  This 
reduces  the  amount  of  soil  required  and  gives  perfect  inoculation.  The 
precautions  pertaining  to  inoculated  soils  and  artificial  cultures  are  the  same 
as  those  given  for  alfalfa. 

The  fertilizers  for  soy  beans  are  the  same  as  for  cowpeas. 

When  planted  in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  permit  of  cultivation, 
cultivation  should  begin  early  and  be  sufficiently  frequent  to  keep  down  all 
weeds  and  maintain  a  soil  mulch.  Soil  should  not  be  thrown  on  the  plants 
when  they  are  wet.  Cultivation  should  cease  when  the  plants  come  into 
bloom. 

Time  and  Method  of  Harvesting. — Beans  grown  for  hay  may  be  cut 
with  the  mowing  machine  and  cured  in  the  same  manner  as  cowpeas.  For 
this  purpose  it  is  best  to  cut  when  the  leaves  first  begin  to  turn  yellow  and 
the  best  developed  pods  begin  to  ripen.  When  harvested  for  seed  it  is  best 
to  wait  until  the  leaves  have  fallen  and  at  least  half  of  the  pods  have  turned 
brown.  If  much  value  is  attached  to  the  straw,  harvesting  for  seed  may 
take  place  a  little  earlier.  The  method  of  threshing  is  the  same  as  that  for 
cowpeas. 

When  grown  with  corn  for  silage  purposes,  the  beans  should  be  a  little 
more  mature  than  when  harvested  for  hay. 

Composition,  Feeding  Value  and  Utilization. — Well-cured  soy  bean 
hay  is  superior  to  clover  hay  and  equal  to  alfalfa.  It  is  more  palatable  than 
cowpea  hay.  Whether  used  for  hay,  grain,  straw  or  ensilage,  it  is  very 
valuable  as  a  feed  for  nearly  all  kinds  of  livestock.  It  is  especially  valuable 
in  all  kinds  of  rations  where  high  protein  content  is  desired.  The  wrhole 
plant  is  high  in  protein  and  the  beans  are  very  high  in  both  protein  and  fat. 

Vetches. — The  hairy  vetch  is  a  winter  annual  and  is  important  as  a 
forage  and  soil  improvement  crop  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  It 
belongs  to  the  same  family  of  plants  as  cowpeas  and  soy  beans.  It  is  best 
adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  climate  and  succeeds  best  in  the  northern  half  of 
the  United  States  and  southern  portion  of  Canada.  Although  it  may  be 
seeded  any  time  during  the  summer,  it  does  best  when  seeded  in  the  late 
summer  or  autumn.  It  generally  blossoms  in  May  and  matures  seeds  hi 
June  or  July. 

It  is  valuable  as  a  winter  cover  crop. .  The  plant  has  a  reclining  habit. 
It  is,  therefore,  best  to  seed  rye  and  vetch  together.  About  twenty-five 
pounds  of  vetch  and  one-half  bushel  of  rye  per  acre  makes  a  suitable  mix- 
ture. The  crop  may  be  turned  under  early  in  the  spring  for  the  benefit  of 
the  soil,  or  pastured  or  cut  green  for  soiling  purposes,  or  made  into  hay. 

Canada  Field  Peas. — This  term  is  used  for  field  peas  regardless  of 
their  variety.  The  plant  is  adapted  to  a  cool,  moist  climate  and  succeeds 
best  when  seeded  early  in  the  spring.  When  used  for  haying  or  soiling 


150 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


purposes,  it  is  best  to  seed  it  with  oats.     The  oats  support  the  peas  and 
facilitate  the  harvesting  of  the  crop. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  use  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the  pea  and  the 
character  of  the  soil.    It  will  vary  from  two  bushels  per  acre  in  case  of  small 


HAIRY  VETCH  AND  RYE  GROWING  TOGETHER.* 

seed  to  three  and  one-half  bushels  of  the  large  seed.  When  seeded  with  oats, 
two  bushels  of  peas  and  one  bushel  of  oats  per  acre  is  about  the  right  pro- 
portion. 

On  light  soils  peas  may  be  sown  broadcast  and  plowed  under  to  a 
depth  of  three  to  four  inches.  Peas  should  not  be  buried  so  deeply  on  stiff 
clays.  Best  results  will  be  secured  by  drilling  the  seed  with  a  grain  drill. 
Some  of  the  peas  will  be  broken  in  passing  through  the  drill,  but  the  loss 

'From  Farmers'  Bulletin  515,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


ANNUAL  HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS    151 

will  not  be  serious.  When  oats  and  peas  are  drilled  together,  it  is  best 
to  drill  the  peas  first,  after  which  the  oats  may  be  drilled  at  right  angles 
to  the  peas  and  not  so  deeply.  Since  the  oats  come  up  more  promptly 
than  the  peas,  some  advocate  deferring  drilling  the  oats  until  three  or  four 
days  after  drilling  the  peas. 

Harvesting. — Peas  are  ordinarily  cut  with  a  mowing  machine  when  the 
first  pods  are  full  grown  but  not  yet  filled.  At  this  time  they  make  an 
excellent  quality  of  hay.  They  are  cured  in  the  same  manner  as  clover  or 
timothy.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  loss  of  leaves  by  shattering 
and  injury  from  rain. 

Other  Annual  Legumes.— The  Velvet  Bean  is  a  rank  growing  vine 
requiring  seven  to  eight  months  to  mature  seeds,  and  is  especially  adapted 
as  a  cover  crop  in  Florida  and  along  the  Gulf  Coast. 

The  Beggar  Weed  is  also  well  adapted  to  the  extreme  South  and  is 
utilized  both  as  forage  and  for  cover  crop  purposes.  It  is  adapted  to  light, 
sandy  soils,  and  when  seeded  thickly,  can  be  converted  into  hay  or  silage. 
It  grows  six  to  ten  feet  high  and  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  livestock. 

Sorghum. — The  non-saccharine  sorghums  were  discussed  under  the 
head  of  Kaffir  corn.  The  sweet  sorghums,  of  which  there  are  a  number  of 
varieties,  are  utilized  for  forage  purposes  as  well  as  for  the  manufacture  of 
molasses.  The  sweet  sorghums  are  not  so  drought  resistant  as  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums,  and  a  small  acreage  may  be  advantageously  grown  on 
many  livestock  farms  east  of  the  semi-arid  region. 

The  season  of  growth  is  similar  to  that  of  corn  and  the  plant  demands 
the  same  kind  of  soil  and  methods  of  treatment.  When  used  for  hay,  it 
should  be  seeded  thickly  either  by  broadcasting  or  by  drilling  with  a  wheat 
drill,  using  70  to  100  pounds  of  seed  per  acre. 

The  Early  Amber  is  considered  the  best  variety  for  general  purposes. 

Sorghum  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  the  seeds  turn  black.  It  may  be 
cut  with  a  mowing  machine  the  same  as  any  hay  crop.  Best  results  are 
secured  by  putting  it  into  large  shocks  and  allowing  it  to  remain  until 
thoroughly  cured.  If  cut  too  early  or  stacked  before  the  weather  becomes 
quite  cool,  it  is  likely  to  sour  and  make  a  poor  quality  of  hay. 

Millek — There  are  three  common  varieties  of  millet:  German,  Hun- 
garian and  common  millet.  The  common  millet  is  drought  resistant  and 
grows  well  on  rather  poor  soil.  It  matures  in  from  two  to  three  months. 
It  makes  a  good  quality  of  hay  and  can  be  fed  with  less  loss  than  the  coarser 
varieties. 

The  German  variety  is  the  largest  and  latest  maturing  variety.  It 
will  outyield  common  millet,  but  is  not  so  drought  resistant. 

Hungarian  millet  is  about  midway  between  the  common  and  German 
millet  as  regards  time  of  maturity,  drought  resistance  and  yield.  Its  tend- 
ency to  produce  a  volunteer  growth  has  brought  it  somewhat  into  disfavor. 

The  millets  may  be  seeded  any  time  after  the  soil  is  thoroughly  warm. 
In  latitude  40  degrees  north,  German  millet  should  be  seeded  the  last  week 


152 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


in  May  or  the  first  week  in  June.  Hungarian  millet  may  be  seeded  two 
or  three  weeks  later,  while  common  millet  will  frequently  produce  a  crop 
when  seeded  as  late  as  the  middle  of  July. 

Millet  is  used  chiefly  as  a  catch  crop  for  hay.  It  is  well  adapted  for 
this  purpose  and  may  be  substituted  where  a  catch  of  clover  or  timothy 
fails.  It  is  also  excellent  to  fill  in  where  areas  of  corn  have  failed. 

The  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  should  begin  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
conditions  will  permit.  This  gives  an  opportunity  to  rid  the  soil  of  weeds 
by  occasional  harrowing  prior  to  seeding.  Millet  is  seeded  broadcast  at 
the  rate  of  one  peck  per  acre  when  grown  for  seed,  and  one-half  bushel  per 


MILLET  MAKES  AN  EXCELLENT  CATCH  CROP  AND  is  PROFITABLE  EITHER  FOR  HAT 
PURPOSES  OR  FOR  SEED  PRODUCTION. 

acre  when  grown  for  hay.  Three  pecks  of  seed  is  advised  by  some  for  hay. 
This  results  in  smaller  plants  with  a  finer  quality  of  hay. 

Where  extensively  grown  for  seed,  millet  should  be  harvested  with  the 
self-binder  when  the  seed  is  in  the  stiff  dough  stage.  The  after-treatment  is 
similar  to  that  for  wheat  and  oats.  The  best  quality  of  hay  is  secured  by 
cutting  before  the  seeds  begin  to  ripen.  The  seeds  act  as  a  diuretic  to  ani- 
mals and  it  is  not  safe  to  feed  too  much  of  it  to  horses.  Hay  that  is  to  be 
used  for  horses  should  be  harvested  before  seeds  form. 

Rape. — Rape  belongs  to  the  same  family  of  plants  as  cabbage  and 
turnips.  There  are  two  varieties,  annual  and  biennial.  The  latter  bears 
seed  in  the  second  year.  The  best  known  variety  of  biennial  is  the  Dwarf 
Essex.  This  gives  best  results  for  soiling  and  pasture  purposes.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  fond  of  rape.  It  is  especially  fine  for  hog  pasture. 


ANNUAL  HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS 


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154 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


This  plant  is  best  adapted  to  cool,  moist  climates  and  does  best  in  the 
Northern  states  and  Canada.  South  of  latitude  38  degrees  it  is  best  to  sow 
it  in  the  fall.  This  allows  it  to  make  most  of  its  growth  during  the  cooler 
part  of  the  year.  North  of  this,  rape  should  be  seeded  in  the  spring  so  that 
it  may  make  most  of  its  growth  before  hot  weather. 

Three  to  six  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  required.  It  may  be  either 
broadcasted  or  seeded  with  a  drill  on  a  well  prepared  seed-bed. 

Rape  is  usually  ready  to  pasture  in  six  or  eight  weeks  after  seeding. 
If  not  pastured  too  closely,  it  continues  to  grow  until  freezing  weather. 


MAKING  HOGS  OF  THEMSELVES.* 
Rape  makes  an  excellent  late  fall  and  early  spring  pasture  for  growing  hogs. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  pasturing  cattle  and  sheep  in  rape.  They  should  be 
allowed  on  the  rape  only  a  short  period  at  a  time,  until  they  become  accus- 
tomed to  it.  Very  bad  cases  of  bloat  may  result  if  this  caution  is  unheeded. 
The  preceding  tabulation  taken  from  "  Wallace's  Farmer"  summarizes 
the  requirements  for  catch  crops  when  used  for  pasture  and  hay.  It  gives 
the  approximate  requirements  for  average  corn-belt  conditions,  but  is 
subject  to  modifications  as  regards  time  of  seeding  and  amount  of  seed, 
depending  on  climatic  conditions. 

1  Courtesy  of  Dept.  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


ANNUAL    HAY    AND    FORAGE    CROPS        155 

REFERENCES 

"Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo."     Shaw. 

"Forage  Crops  for  the  South."     Tracy. 

"Forage  Crops."     Voorhees, 

"Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture."     Piper. 

Michigan  Expt.  Station  Circular  27.     "Hairy  Vetch." 

Mississippi  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  172.     "Forage  Crops." 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

458.     "Best  Two  Sweet  Sorghums  for  Forage." 

515.     "Vetches." 

529.     "Vetch  Growing  in  the  South  Atlantic  States." 

599.     "Pasture  and  Grain  Crops  for  Hogs  in  the  Pacific  Northwest. 

605.     "Soudan  Grass  as  a  Forage  Crop." 

677.     "Growing  Hay  in  the  South  for  Market." 

686.     "Uses  of  Sorghum  Grain." 

690.     "The  Field  Pea  as  a  Forage  Crop." 


CHAPTER   12 

ANNUAL  LEGUMES,  GROWN  PRINCIPALLY  FOR  SEEDS 

The  annual  legumes  most  grown  in  North  America  for  seed  are  the 
white  or  navy  bean,  the  common  pea  and  the  peanut.  They  are  used 
extensively  as  food  for  man.  In  addition  to  these,  cowpeas  and  soy  beans 
are  grown  for  seed,  some  of  which  is  used  for  human  food,  some  for  stock 
food,  but  still  more  for  seeding  purposes. 

The  production  of  crimson  clover,  vetch  and  castor  bean  for  their  seed 
is  of  minor  importance  in  North  America. 

Field  Bean. — Is  extensively  grown  under  field  conditions  for  the  pro- 
duction of  dried  beans.  These  become  the  baked  beans  of  New  England 
fame.  According  to  the  census  of  1910  the  production  in  the  United  States 
was  11,250,000  bushels  of  60  pounds  from  803,000  acres.  Michigan,  Cali- 
fornia and  New  York  lead  in  bean  production.  During  the  same  year 
Canada  grew  about  1,000,000  bushels  from  50,000  acres. 

Field  beans  do  best  in  a  cool,  moist  climate.  They  are  not  adapted  to 
conditions  south  of  40  degrees  north  latitude.  Field  beans  are  adapted  to 
loamy  soils  of  a  calcareous  nature,  but  may  be  grown  fairly  well  on  clay 
loams  and  silt  loams  when  well  supplied  with  organic  matter.  The  under- 
drainage  must  be  good  and  cultural  methods  such  as  will  produce  a  fine, 
mellow  seed-bed. 

Time,  Rate,  Manner  and  Depth  of  Seeding. — Beans  are  tender  plants 
and  seeding,  therefore,  should  be  deferred  until  danger  from  frost  is  past. 
This  makes  it  convenient  to  plant  them  immediately  after  planting  corn. 

They  give  best  results  when  planted  in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  permit 
horse  cultivation.  The  beans  may  be  drilled  or  planted  in  hills.  Drilling 
usually  gives  best  results,  distributing  the  seed  from  three  to  six  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  With  rows  thirty  inches  apart  about  one-half  bushel  of 
seed  per  acre  will  be  required. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  plant  too  deeply.  The  habit  of  growth 
is  such  that  the  plant  cannot  reach  the  surface  if  planted  deeply.  An  inch 
and  one-half  to  two  inches  is  the  maximum  depth  on  any  except  sandy 
soils.  On  sandy  soils  they  may  be  three  inches  deep. 

The  beans  should  be  thoroughly  and  frequently  cultivated  during 
their  early  stages  of  growth  to  destroy  weeds  and  conserve  soil  moisture. 
They  should  not  be  cultivated  when  dew  is  on  the  plants.  This  precaution 
must  be  taken  to  guard  against  certain  diseases,  the  spores  of  which  may 
be  in  the  soil.  Disturbing  the  plants  while  they  are  wet  tends  to  scatter 
the  spores  and  spread  the  disease. 

(156) 


ANNUAL    LEGUMES 


157 


Harvesting. — The  ripe  beans  are  harvested  with  a  bean  harvester. 
This  implement  cuts  two  rows  at  a  time,  leaving  the  vines  in  a  single 
windrow.  If  the  vines  are  practically  dead  when  harvested  they  may  be 
placed  at  once  hi  small  piles,  and  later  built  into  large  cocks  around  poles 
five  feet  or  more  in  height. 

Threshing  and  Cleaning. — Beans  grown  commercially  are  threshed 
with  a  machine  especially  adapted  to  the  purpose.  It  is  operated  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  ordinary  threshing  machine.  If  only  a  few  beans 


HARVESTING  FIELD  BEANS  WITH  A  HARVESTER.1 


are  grown  an  ordinary  threshing  machine  may  be  used.  All  except  four 
teeth  should  be  removed  from  the  concaves  and  the  speed  of  the  machine 
should  be  such  as  not  to  break  the  beans.  Most  satisfactory  results  will  be 
secured  by  having  all  the  beans  uniformly  dry. 

Beans  fresh  from  the  thresher  generally  contain  fragments  of  straw, 
stones  and  particles  of  earth  which  must  be  removed  before  being  placed 
upon  the  market.  This  calls  for  the  use  of  a  special  cleaning  machine, 
which  removes  most  of  the  foreign  matter.  After  this  the  remaining 
broken  and  discolored  seeds  must  be  removed  by  hand, 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  89. 


158  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Yield. — Variations  in  weights  of  measured  bushels  range  from  fifty- 
seven  to  sixty-five  pounds.  The  standard  weight  is  sixty  pounds.  Beans 
yield  all  the  way  from  five  to  thirty-five  bushels  per  acre.  There  is  usually 
no  profit  in  a  ten-bushel  crop.  According  to  the  last  census  the  average 
yield  per  acre  was  fourteen  bushels. 

Field  Peas. — The  Canada  field  peas,  described  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter, are  extensively  grown  in  Canada  and  a  few  of  the  Northern  states  for 
the  dried  peas.  These  are  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  uses  as  feed  for 
livestock.  They  also  furnish  the  supply  of  seed  for  all  localities  where  the 
crop  is  grown  for  forage  purposes. 

Peas  are  very  high  in  protein  and  are  especially  adapted  as  feed  for 
young  stock  and  for  the  production  of  milk  and  butter.  When  given  with 
oats  and  bran  to  cows  in  milk,  they  may  constitute  from  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  concentrates  fed. 

When  harvested  for  seed,  the  vines  are  cut  with  a  mowing  machine 
to  which  special  guards  are  attached  for  lifting  them  from  the  ground. 
There  is  also  a  device  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  cutting  bar,  which  leaves 
the  vines  in  a  swath  far  enough  from  the  standing  peas  to  enable  the  team 
and  machine  to  work  without  tramping  the  peas.  It  is  customary  to  cut 
when  two-thirds  of  the  pods  are  yellow. 

When  dry  the  peas  should  be  stacked  under  cover  or  threshed  immedi- 
ately with  a  pea  huller  or  with  an  ordinary  threshing  machine  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  for  field  beans. 

The  legal  weight  of  field  peas  is  sixty  pounds  to  the  bushel.  They  are 
quite  prolific  and  under  favorable  conditions  will  yield  forty  bushels  to  the 
acre.  At  Guelph,  Ontario,  eight  varieties  during  eleven  years  gave  an 
average  yield  of  31.5  bushels  per  acre.  Four  varieties  at  Ottawa  averaged 
34.4  bushels  for  five  years,  while  six  varieties  grown  for  five  years  in  three 
other  localities  averaged  40,  41  and  41.2  bushels  respectively  per  acre. 

The  most  suitable  varieties  to  grow  depend  somewhat  on  soil  and 
climatic  conditions.  Three  good  all-around  varieties  are  Prussian  Green, 
Canadian  Beauty  and  White  Marrowfat. 

Cowpeas. — The  seed  of  cowpeas  has  been  very  little  used  as  feed, 
because  the  price  has  been  too  high  to  justify  its  use  in  this  way.  The 
introduction  of  suitable  harvesting  and  threshing  machinery  should  make  it 
possible  to  produce  grain  of  the  more  prolific  varieties  at  prices  that'  will 
put  it  in  reach  for  feeding  purposes.  At  present  practically  air  of 
cowpea  seed  is  used  for  seeding  purposes,  the  price  ranging  from  $2  to 
$4  per  bushel. 

The  dried  shelled  peas  contain  26  per  cent  of  protein,  1.5  per  cent  of 
fat  and  63  per  cent  of  nitrogen  free  extract.  A  comparatively  low  rainfall 
is  favorable  to  seed  production.  Continuous  wet  weather  causes  a  develop- 
ment of  vines  at  the  expense  of  seed.  At  one  of  the  southern  experiment 
stations  during  a  series  of  five  years,  the  yield  of  peas  with  a  yearly  rainfall 
of  62  inches  was  only  12  bushels  per  acre,  whereas,  with  only  22  inches  of 


ANNUAL    LEGUMES 


159 


rainfall,  the  yield  was  28  bushels  per  acre.  The  yield  of  hay  in  both  cases 
was  practically  the  same. 

The  methods  of  seeding  and  harvesting  for  seed  production  are  treated 
in  the  foregoing  chapter. 

Soy  Beans. — The  growing  of  soy  beans  for  gram  to  be  used  as  feed  is 
profitable  if  the  yield  is  sixteen  bushels  or  more  per  acre.  The  seed  is  very 
rich  in  oil  and  protein  and  occupies  the  same  place  in  concentrates  as 
cottonseed  meal  and  oil  meal.  The  seed  should  be  ground  before  being  fed. 
Some  of  the  varieties  with  highest  fat  content  are  being  utilized  for  the 
manufacture  of  oil.  This  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  linseed  oil  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paints.  The  best  varieties  under  proper  cultivation  yield  from 


CANTON  FARM  BUREAU. 
EXPERIMENT 


SOY  BEANS,  BRADFORD  COUNTY,  PENNSYLVANIA.1 

This  annual  legume  is  excellent  for  both  forage  and  seed  production.     May  be 
grown  nearly  as  far  north  as  dent  corn. 

thirty  to  forty  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre.  Hollybrook,  Mammoth  and 
Haberlandt  are  three  especially  good  varieties  for  seed  production.  Tall 
varieties  that  bear  pods  some  distance  from  the  ground  are  most  desirable 
and  most  easily  harvested. 

The  methods  for  harvesting  and  threshing  are  given  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  The  threshed  beans  should  be  thoroughly  dried  when  stored. 
Otherwise  they  are  likely  to  heat  and  spoil.  They  should  be  carefully 
watched  when  first  stored  and  at  once  spread  out  to  dry  if  there  are  signs  of 
heating. 

Soy  bean  seed  is  especially  exempt  from  weevils. 

1  Courtesy  of  Department  of  Agricultural  Extension,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


160 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Castor  Bean. — There  are  two  classes  of  castor  beans,  one  a  perennial, 
bushy  plant  with  large  seeds;  the  other  a  small  seeded  variety  which  yields 
oil  of  superior  quality.  The  plant  grows  within  a  wide  range  of  climate, 
from  the  tropics  to  the  north  temperate  zone.  In  Florida  it  is  a  perennial 
plant  growing  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  high.  Further  north,  it  becomes 
an  annual,  matures  seed  in  a  short  season  and  grows  only  four  or  five  feet 
high. 

The  castor  bean  thrives  in  sandy  soils  and  its  culture  is  simple.  The 
seeds  germinate  with  difficulty  and  it  is  advised  to  place  them  in  hot  water 
twenty-four  hours  before  planting. 

It  is  customary  to  plant  them  in  hills  two  inches  deep,  eight  to  ten 
beans  to  a  hill.  They  are  afterwards  thinned  to  one  or  two  plants  per  hill. 
The  rows  should  be  five  or  six  feet  apart  and  the  plants  from  two  to  three 
feet  apart  in  the  North,  and  from  five  to  six  feet  apart  in  the  South,  where 

the  plant  grows  more 
luxuriantly.  They 
require  about  the  same 
tillage  as  corn. 

Planting  should  be 
done  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  possible,  but 
must  escape  injury 
from  frost. 

As  soon  as  the  pods 
begin  to  open  the  fruit 
branches  should  be  re- 
moved. This  process 
must  be  repeated  at 
least  once  a  week  as 
The  branches  are  spread  out  to  dry  on  the  floor  of  a 


CRIMSON  CLOVER,  A  GOOD  WINTER  COVER  CROP  WHERE 
WINTERS  ARE  MILD. 

Well  suited  to  the  lighter  soils  in  the  Coastal  Plain  Region 
south  of  Philadelphia. 


soon  as  seeds  ripen, 
suitable  building. 

In  the  United  States  most  of  the  castor  beans  are  produced  in  Kansas, 
Oklahoma,  California,  Oregon  and  Wisconsin. 

The  chief  use  of  the  beans  is  for  the  manufacture  of  castor  oil.  This 
oil  is  one  of  the  best  lubricants  for  machinery  and  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  many  articles. 

Vetch. — Common  vetch  and  hairy  vetch  are  the  two  most  important 
varieties  of  vetches.  Common  vetch  seed  is  produced  in  large  quantities 
in  the  United  States  only  in  parts  of  Oregon.  Hairy  vetch  has  a  wider 
range  of  growth,  but  is  grown  mostly  for  forage,  most  of  the  seed  being 
imported  from  Russia.  Both  of  these  varieties  seed  freely  wherever  grown 
and  the  prevailing  high  price  of  the  seed  ($5  to  $8  per  bushel)  should  induce 
farmers  to  grow  more  of  it  for  seed  purposes.  Yields  ranging  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre  have  been  reported  for  common  vetch,  the 
average  estimated  yield  being  ten  bushels.  Hairy  vetch  is  somewhat  less 


ANNUAL    LEGUMES  161 

prolific,  but  yields  ranging  from  two  and  one-half  to  twenty-one  bushels 
per  acre  have  been  reported  by  different  experiment  stations,  the  average 
yield  being  seven  and  one-half  bushels.  % 

The  method  of  harvesting  for  seed  is  similar  to  that  of  cowpeas.  It 
is  threshed  with  the  ordinary  threshing  machine. 

Crimson  Clover. — The  chief  demand  for  seed  of  crimson  clover  is  for 
seeding  purposes.  The  seed  is  larger  than  that  of  red  clover,  one  pound 
containing  125,000  to  150,000.  The  weight  is  sixty  pounds  to  the  bushel. 
It  yields  better  than  red  clover,  averaging  about  six  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Most  of  the  seed  is  produced  in  Delaware  and  nearby  states. 

Crimson  clover  should  be  harvested  for  seed  as  soon  as  perfectly  ripe. 
The  seeds  shatter  badly.  For  this  reason  it  should  be  cut  promptly, 
preferably  in  the  morning  or  evening  when  the  plants  are  damp.  The 
mowing  machine  with  a  clover  buncher  or  the  self-rake  reaper  are  best 
adapted  for  harvesting  the  crop.  If  the  clover  becomes  wet  the  seeds 
sprout,  causing  serious  loss.  For  this  reason  threshing  should  promptly 
follow  the  harvest. 

Fresh  seed  is  shiny  and  of  a  pinkish  color.  Seed  two  years  old  loses 
its  bright  color,  becoming  dark  brown.  It  is  then  worthless  for  seeding 
purposes. 

The  cultural  methods  for  crimson  clover  are  given  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

PEANUTS 

During  the  last  decade  there  has  been  a  great  increase  in  the  production 
and  use  of  peanuts  in  the  United  States.  Their  annual  commercial  value 
in  the  United  States,  according  to  the  last  census,  was  $18,272,000.  The 
states  leading  in  production  are  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Georgia  and 
Florida,  three-fourths  of  the  marketable  nuts  being  produced  in  these 
states.  They  are  valued  for  forage  as  well  as  for  a  money  crop,  having  a 
feeding  value  equal  to  that  of  clover  hay.  Peanut  products,  such  as  peanut 
butter,  oil  and  meal,  also  have  a  market  value.  The  peanut  kernel  has  a 
high  percentage  of  fat.  After  the  oil  has  been  extracted  the  meal  is  noted 
for  its  high  percentage  of  protein.  Being  nitrogen  gathering  like  other 
legumes,  they  are  valued  as  a  soil  improvement  crop. 

In  parts  of  the  South  where  corn  is  not  a  successful  crop,  its  place  is 
being  taken  by  the  peanut,  the  entire  plant  being  fed.  It  also  enters  use- 
fully into  the  cropping  system,  on  the  cotton  and  tobacco  lands  of  the 
Southern  states.  In  parts  of  the  South  where  the  cotton-boll  weevil  is 
troublesome,  peanuts  are  more  advantageously  cultivated  than  cotton. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Conditions. — A  light,  loamy,  sandy  soil  is  best  suited 
to  peanuts.  A  dark  soil  will  produce  the  forage  crop  satisfactorily,  but  is 
apt  to  discolor  the  nuts  for  market  purposes.  Heavier  soils  may  be  used 
for  forage  purposes,  but  if  grown  for  nuts,  a  loose  soil  is  necessary,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  nuts  must  burrow  into  the  soil  in  order  to  develop. 


A  PEANUT  PLANT.1 


1  Farmers'  Bulletin  431,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

162 


ANNUAL    LEGUMES  163 

A  compact  soil  does  not  facilitate  this  very  necessary  process.  The  peanut 
is  more  susceptible  to  frost  than  the  bean  plant.  It  requires  a  long  season 
without  frost  in  order  to  develop  nuts.  The  small  Spanish  peanuts  require 
about  115  days  to  mature  and  the  large  varieties  need  a  still  longer  period. 
For  this  reason  they  are  most  successfully  grown  in  the  frost-free  regions, 
such  as  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states  and  westward  into  California. 
When  grown  for  forage,  however,  a  wider  range  of  climate  is  possible, 
peanuts  being  successfully  grown  as  far  north  as  Maryland  and  Delaware. 

Fertilizers  and  Lime  Required. — Soils  that  are  adapted  to  peanuts 
will  not  require  much  commercial  fertilizer,  although  the  peanut  responds 
readily  to  a  moderate  use  of  it.  On  river  bottom  lands  no  fertilizer  will  be . 
needed,  but  in  hillside  regions  applications  of  fertilizers  and  lime  are  advis- 
able. Practically  the  same  fertilizer  that  is  suitable  for  potatoes  is  suitable 
for  peanuts.  The  peanut  responds  well  to  the  application  of  manure,  but 
the  manure  should  be  applied  to  the  crop  preceding  the  peanuts.  For  this 
reason,  peanuts  should  follow  a  cultivated  crop  if  possible.  This  also  aids 
materially  in  freeing  the  peanuts  from  weeds.  Too  much  manure  causes  a 
heavy  growth  of  tops  to  the  detriment  of  the  pods.  If  the  forage  is  fed  and 
returned  to  the  land  in  the  form  of  manure,  the  peanut  is  not  an  exhaustive 
crop,  but  if  the  entire  crop  is  removed  it  soon  robs  the  soil  of  fertility. 

Peanuts  also  require  an  abundance  of  lime  in  the  soil.  Soils  that  show 
any  indications  of  sourness  should  receive  from  600  to  1000  pounds  of  lime 
(preferably  fresh  burned)  to  the  acre.  This  treatment  should  be  given  at 
least  every  five  years.  The  sorrel  weed  is  an  indication  of  a  sou*  soil. 

The  fertilizer  may  be  distributed  in  the  row  to  be  planted  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  soil.  Lime  should  not  be  applied  at  the  same  time, 
but  some  time  previous,  either  during  the  fall  before  or  just  after  plowing. 

Time,  Rate,  Depth  and  Manner  of  Planting. — Peanuts  should  be 
planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  thoroughly  warm  and  all  danger  from 
frost  is  over.  This  insures  quick  germination.  The  larger  varieties  must 
be  planted  somewhat  earlier  than  the  Spanish  variety,  as  more  time  is 
needed  to  mature. 

The  soil  is  prepared  much  the  same  as  that  for  potatoes.  The  peanuts 
are  planted  in  furrows  about  three  feet  apart.  The  nuts  may  be  dropped 
by  hand  or  a  one-horse  peanut  planter  may  be  used.  The  running  varieties 
should  be  planted  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  apart  in  the  row  but  the 
bunch  varieties  somewhat  closer,  from  nine  to  twelve  inches  apart.  The 
richer  the  soil,  the  greater  should  be  the  distance  between  plants,  in  order 
to  allow  for  growth. 

Only  one  seed  in  a  place  is  necessary,  but  in  order  to  insure  a  good  yield, 
two  seeds  are  preferable.  Two  pecks  of  shelled  peanuts  are  generally 
sufficient  to  plant  an  acre,  while  two  bushels  of  the  Spanish  peanut  in  the 
pod  are  required. 

Peanuts  should  be  covered  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  two  inches 
deep,  depending  upon  character  of  soil.  Light,  sandy  soils  require  a  deeper 


164  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

planting,  while  on  heavy  soils  from  three-quarters  to  one  and  one-quarter 
inches  is  sufficient. 

Seed  Selection  and  Preparation. — Selecting  a  good  grade  of  seed  is 
just  as  important  in  peanut  culture  as  it  is  with  corn  or  any  other  crop. 
Seed  should  be  selected  only  from  mature  plants  and  from  those  producing 
the  largest  number  of  pods.  It  must  be  properly  cured  and  kept  thoroughly 
dry  during  the  winter.  It  is  not  safe  to  use  seed  older  than  the  preceding 
crop. 

Seed  from  the  large  pod  varieties  should  always  be  shelled  before 
planting.  Shelled  seed  is  surer  and  more  rapid  of  germination  than  seed  in 
the  pod,  and  insures  a  better  stand.  Machine-planted  seed  must  be  shelled. 

The  small  or  Spanish  varieties  may  be  planted  in  the  pod  with  but 
little  disadvantage.  Some  growers  make  a  practice  of  soaking  the  pods  for 
a  few  hours  before  planting  in  order  to  soften  them  and  hasten  germination. 
Soaked  seed  must  be  planted  at  once,  however,  or  it  becomes  useless. 
Shelled  seed  should  not  be  soaked. 

Preparing  the  large  varieties  for  seed  entails  much  work,  as  they  must 
be  shelled  by  hand.  The  smaller  varieties,  however,  are  usually  shelled  by 
machinery,  although  some  loss  is  experienced  by  this  process. 

Varieties. — Peanuts  are  divided  into  large-podded  and  small-podded 
varieties,  according  to  their  size.  The  Virginia  bunch  and  the  Virginia 
runner  are  the  two  most  grown  large  varieties.  These  varieties  are  the 
most  used  when  roasted  and  sold  for  human  consumption.  They  have 
about  the  same  weight  per  bushel. 

The  Spanish  peanut  is  much  used  for  forage  and  for  shelled  purposes. 
Its  range  of  growth  is  wider  than  that  of  the  Virginia  variety. 

Other  varieties  are  the  African,  the  Tennessee  Red  and  the  Valencia. 
They  are  all  small  varieties. 

Cultivation,  Harvesting  and  Curing. — Peanuts  should  be  cultivated 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  beans,  corn  or  similar  crops.  Cultivation 
should  begin  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  up  and  continue  until  the  vines  spread 
over  the  ground.  The  soil  should  be  kept  loose  and  free  from  weeds.  Pea- 
nut pods  have  the  peculiar  habit  of  burrowing  in  the  ground  when  they 
begin  to  form.  For  this  reason  the  dirt  should  be  worked  towards  the  vines 
in  the  last  cultivation  and  the  vines  should  not  be  disturbed  after  the 
process  of  burrowing  begins. 

The  same  implements  may  be  used  as  for  cultivating  corn  and  beans. 
A  one-horse  weeder  is  the  general  form  of  cultivator  used. 

Harvesting  should  occur  just  before  frost,  as  frost  will  injure  the  forage 
as  well  as  the  peanuts.  Peanuts  may  be  plowed  from  the  ground  with  a 
common  turning  plow,  but  the  use  of  a  potato-digging  machine  is  a  much 
better  method.  The  initial  expense  of  such  a  machine  is  about  $75,  but  it 
lasts  many  years  and  does  the  work  much  more  efficiently  than  it  can  be 
done  otherwise.  If  dug  by  plow  the  soil  must  be  shaken  from  the  roots  by 
hand,  whereas  the  machine  shakes  off  the  soil  as  it  digs. 


ANNUAL    LEGUMES 


165 


A  few  hours  after  harvesting  the  peanuts  should  be  stacked  about  a 
pole.  These  poles  should  be  driven  firmly  into  the  ground  and  pieces 
nailed  at  right  angles  to  them  just  above  the  ground  hi  6*rder  to  keep  the 
vines  from  the  ground  as  much  as  possible.  The  stacks  should  be  small 
and  conical  and  stacked  as  loosely  as  possible  so  that  air  will  pass  through. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  store  peanuts  in  the  barn  until  thoroughly  cured. 
Then  the  forage  part  may  be  stored  after  the  nuts  are  picked. 

The  nuts  should  not  be  picked  from  the  vines  until  they  are  thoroughly 
dry  and  solid,  else  they  will  shrivel  and  become  unfit  for  market  purposes. 


HARVESTING  AND  CURING  PEANUTS.  l 

On  the  other  hand,  picking  should  not  be  delayed  too  late  in  the  season  on 
account  of  ravages  from  crows  and  mice. 

Hand-picked  peanuts  command  the  highest  price,  but  owing  to  the 
dusty,  irksome  labor  involved,  picking  machines  are  coming  into  general 
favor.  There  are  two  kinds  on  the  market:  one  is  a  cylinder  type  used 
mostly  for  Spanish  peanuts;  the  other  machine  drags  the  vines  over  a 
horizontal  wire  mesh,  thus  removing  the  nuts  without  breaking  them. 

Peanuts  must  be  kept  continually  dry  or  they  become  discolored. 
After  picking  they  are  usually  covered  with  dust  and  kept  in  a  dry,  well- 
ventilated  place  until  stored  in  bags  ready  for  market. 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Fanners'  Bulletin  431. 


166  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Preparing  for  Market. — Threshed  peanuts  contain  much  trash,  neces- 
sitating a  thorough  cleaning  before  marketing.  This  can  be  done  on  a 
small  scale  by  the  grower,  but  if  large  quantities  are  involved,  the  process 
is  more  economically  done  in  a  cleaning  factory,  which  is  equipped  with  all 
necessary  fanning  and  grading  machinery. 

Yields. — An  average  yield  of  peanuts  is  about  thirty-four  bushels  an 
acre,  although  it  is  quite  possible  on  fertile  soil  and  by  expert  methods 
to  increase  this  to  sixty  bushels  an  acre,  with  from  one  to  two  tons  of 
forage.  Peanut  forage  is  worth  from  $8  to  $10  per  ton.  Sixty  bushels  of 
nuts  are  worth  from  $40  to  $60,  according  to  quality.  Estimating  upon 
this  basis,  allowing  an  expenditure  of  from  $12  to  $25  per  acre  to  grow  the 
crop,  the  grower  would  realize  a  profit  of  from  $36  to  $45  per  acre. 
This  is  a  conservative  estimate  and,  all  conditions  being  favorable,  might 
be  much  larger. 

REFERENCES 
"The  Peanut."     Jones. 
"The  Peanut  and  Its  Culture."     Roper. 

"Peas  and  Pea  Culture."     Sevey.  • 

Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  232.    "Field  Beans." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

315.      'Legume  Inoculation." 

318.      'Cowpeas." 

372.      'Soy  Beans." 

431.      'Peanuts." 

561.      'Bean  Growing  in  Western  States." 

579.      'Utilization  of  Crimson  Clover." 

646.      '  Crimson  Clover  Seed  Production." 


CHAPTER  13 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  FOR  FORAGE 

In  the  United  States  roots  and  tubers  are  grown  principally  as  vege- 
tables or  for  sugar  production,  but  in  Canada  they  are  quite  extensively 
grown  for  forage  purposes.  In  such  root  crops  as  the  beet,  turnip,  parsnip 
and  carrot,  the  edible  part  is  really  an  enlargement  of  the  upper  portion  of 
the  root  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  stem  merged  together.  Roots,  such 
as  cassava  and  chufa,  are  enlargements  of  the  roots. 

According  to  the  last  census  Canada  produced  nearly  200,000  acres  of 
root  crops,  while  those  grown  in  the  United  States  for  forage  purposes 


ROOT  CROPS,  1909-1910.    FIGURES = ACHES.  l 

aggregated  only  about  15,000  acres.  Mangels,  rutabagas,  turnips,  beets, 
carrots  and  cabbage  are  best  adapted  to  cool,  moist  climates.  Of  these  the 
rutabaga  and  turnip  may  be  successfully  grown  further  south  than  the 
others.  The  accompanying  map  gives  the  acreage  of  root  crops  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  by  states  and  provinces  according  to  the  latest 
census  figures. 

Relation  to  Other  Crops. — The  economy  in  growing  root  crops  for 
forage  purposes  depends  chiefly  on  whether  or  not  other  succulent  crops 
suited  to  feeding  livestock  can  be  more  cheaply  produced.  It  also  depends 
on  the  relative  yields  of  the  different  crops. 


1  Courtesy  of  The  MacmiUan  Company,  X.  Y. 
20 


From  "  Forage  Plants  and  their  Culture,"  by  Piper, 
(167) 


168 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  longer  the  winter  period,  the  greater  the  need  for  succulent  food 
for  livestock  during  the  stabling  period.  For  this  reason  there  is  more 
need  of  such  foods  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada 
than  farther  south  where  the  season  for  plant  growth  is  longer.  Many  of 
the  root  crops  are  adapted  to  a  short  growing  season  where  corn  cannot  be 
successfully  grown. 

Numerous  experiments  on  the  relative  cost  of  producing  corn  and  roots 
show  that  corn  is  the  cheaper  source  of  feed  wherever  it  can  be  successfully 


A  LOAD  or  MANGELS,  NOTE  SIZE  AND  CHAKACTEK  OF  RooTs.1 


grown.  The  root  crops  require  more  labor  than  corn  in  culture,  harvesting 
and  feeding.  Less  of  the  work  can  be  done  by  labor-saving  machinery. 
It  is  for  this  reason  chiefly  that  they  are  the  more  expensive  source  of  suc- 
culent food.  Roots  have  the  advantage  in  that  they  may  be  grown  in 
small  quantities  for  small  numbers  of  livestock  when  it  would  not  be 
practicable  to  have  a  silo.  They  also  fit  well  into  crop  rotations  and  the 
tillage  required  by  them  leaves  the  soil  in  excellent  condition  for  crops  that 
follow. 

Utilization  and  Feeding  Value. — The  root  crops  are  best  utilized  for 
dairy  cattle,  especially  during  the  winter  period.  The  various  roots  differ 
considerably  in  their  percentage  of  dry  matter  and  feeding  value.  Sugar 

1  Courtesy  of  Webb  Publishing  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minn.     From  "Field  Crops,"  by    Wilson  and 
Warburtpn, 


ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  FOR  FORAGE    169 

beets  rank  first,  as  they  have  about  20  per  cent  of  dry  matter  ,%three-quarters 
of  which  is  sugar.  ^Mangels,  rutabagas  and  turnips  frequently  have  no 
more  than  10  to  12  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  not  more  than  one-half  of  which 
is  sugar. 

Some  of  the  flat-topped  turnips  that  grow  principally  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  may  be  grown  for  rmsturage  and  are  readily  eaten  by  sheep. 

The  dry  matter  hi  roots  is  slightly  lower  in  feeding  value,  pound  for 
pound,  than  that  in  cereals.  It  is  about  equal  hi  digestibility  to  the  dry 
matter  in  cereals. 

The  yield  of  some  of  the  more  important  root  crops,  as  grown  at  a 
number  of  experiment  stations,  is  as  follows:  mangels,  average  yield  in 
tons  per  acre  during  five  years  hi  five  localities,  31;  rutabagas,  same  locali- 
ties and  same  number  of  years,  26.5  tons  per  acre;  carrots,  same  localities 
and  same  number  of  years,  23.6  tons  per  acre;  sugar  beets,  same  localities, 
average  five  years  in  two  of  them  and  three  years  in  other  three,  20.6 
tons  per  acre;  turnips,  three  localities  average  of  five  years,  21.3  tons 
per  acre. 

Sugar-Beets. — While  sugar-beets  have  a  high  feeding  value  they  are 
not  extensively  grown  as  forage  because  the  yield  is  generally  much  less 
than  can  be  secured  from  mangels  and  rutabagas.  The  by-products  of  the 
sugar  factories  hi  the  form  of  beet  pulp  are  quite  extensively  used  as 
roughage  for  livestock.  Beet  pulp  is  a  food  that  can  be  easily  stored  and 
kept,  and  instead  of  losing  its  value  it  really  improves  with  age.  The 
pulp  may  be  simply  thrown  on  the  ground  and  preserved  for  three  or 
four  years  without  deterioration  except  in  the  outer  part.  For  cultural 
methods  of  beets  see  the  article  on  "Sugar  Crops." 

Mangels. — Mangels  differ  quite  materially  from  sugar-beets  in  form, 
color  and  size.  Sugar-beets  grow  mostly  in  the  ground,  are  tapering  hi 
form,  and  both  the  skin  and  flesh  are  white.  Mangels  average  four  times  as 
large,  are  more  cylindrical  in  form,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  root 
grows  above  ground.  The  flesh  of  the  mangel  is  usually  reddish  or  yellow, 
while  the  skin  may  be  white,  red,  golden,  purplish  or  even  black.  Mangels 
are  planted  in  rows  twenty-eight  to  thirty-six  niches  apart.  The  rate  of 
seeding  ranges  from  six  to  eight  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  The  seed  should 
be  covered  about  one  inch  deep  and  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  established 
they  should  be  thinned  by  use  of  a  hoe  to  little  groups  of  plants  at  intervals 
of  twelve  inches.  These  should  be  thinned  later  by  hand  to  one  plant  to 
each  place.  They  should  be  cultivated  to  destroy  weeds  and  maintain  a 
good  soil  mulch.  They  are  generally  harvested  by  plowing  a  furrow  on  one 
side  of  the  row,  and  are  pulled  by  hand.  On  account  of  their  large  size  they 
require  much  cutting  before  being  fed.  They  may  be  stored  in  root  cellars 
or  in  pits,  and  call  for  a  low,  uniform  temperature  and  fair  ventilation  during 
the  storage  period. 

Turnips  and  Rutabagas. — There  are  a  great  variety  of  turnips.  Ruta- 
bagas or  Swedes  are  but  a  few  of  the  large  growing  varieties  that  are  espe- 


170 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


cially  adapted  for  forage  purposes  because  of  the  large  yields  they 
give.  From  two  to  three  pounds  of  turnip  seed  and  four  to  five  pounds  of 
rutabaga  seed  per  acre  are  required.  The  seed  may  be  either  drilled  or 
broadcasted,  although  in  case  of  rutabages  drilling  is  decidedly  preferable. 
The  preparation  of  the  ground,  planting  and  method  of  tillage  is  very  simi- 
lar to  that  given  mangels.  As  turnips  make  their  growth  in  two  or  three 
months,  they  may  be  seeded  late  in  the  summer  and  yet  mature  before 
frost.  Rutabagas  require  more  time  for  maturity  and  should  be  sown  in 
May  or  June. 

Turnips  do  not  keep  well  and  should  be  fed  in  the  fall  and  early  winter. 
Rutabagas,  on  the  other  hand,  keep  through  the  winter  without  difficulty. 
The  methods  of  storage  are  similar  to  those  for  rutabages. 

Carrots. — This  crop  is  less  extensively  used  for  forage  purposes,  chiefly 
because  it  yields  less  abundantly  than  rutabagas  and  mangels.  It  makes 


VEWT/LATOR 


CROSS  SECTION  OP  AN  EASILY  CONSTRUCTED  PIT  FOR  ROOTS.  l 

an  excellent  quality  of  feed  and  calls  for  about  the  same  soil  conditions  and 
cultural  methods  as  the  other  root  crops.  The  roots  are  much  smaller  and 
consequently  there  should  be  more  of  them  in  a  given  area.  From  four  to 
six  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  required.  It  should  be  drilled  in  rows,  and 
the  plants  should  ultimately  stand  two  or  three  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Parsnip. — This  crop  requires  a  rich,  fertile  soil,  and  demands  the  same 
cultural  methods  as  the  carrot.  The  roots  of  the  parsnip  may  be  dug  late 
in  the  fall  and  stored  or  allowed  to  remain  where  grown  and  dug  as  required 
for  use.  Whether  they  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  field  will  be  determined 
largely  by  winter  conditions  and  the  possibilities  of  digging  them  in  the 
winter  time.  When  used  as  human  food,  the  freezing  of  the  roots  improves 
their  flavor. 

Cabbage. — While  this  crop  is  grown  chiefly  for  human  consumption, 
in  some  sections  of  the  country  it  is  extensively  grown  for  forage  purposes. 
The  usual  method  of  storing  cabbage  is  to  dig  a  trench  about  eighteen  inches 

i  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  465,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 


ROOTS  AND  TUBERS  FOR  FORAGE    171 

deep  and  three  feet  wide  in  which  the  cabbage  is  set  with  t£e  heads  close 
together  and  the  roots  bedded  in  soil.  As  cold  weather  approaches  they  are 
covered  with  straw  and  a  few  inches  of  earth.  Slight  freezing  does  not 
injure  them,  but  they  should  not  be  subjected  to  alternate  freezing  and 
thawing.  They  should  be  well  ventilated  while  hi  storage.  Cabbage 
makes  a  good  roughage  for  dairy  cows  and  young  stock. 

Kale. — Thousand-Head  3d  kale  is  the  variety  best  adapted  for  forage 
purposes  because  of  its  large,  rank  growth  and  heavy  yield.  It  somewhat 
resembles  cabbage  and  makes  a  succulent  forage  which  can  be  fed  from 
October  until  April  in  regions  where  the  winter  is  mild.  It  is  best  fed  fresh 
or  allowed  to  wilt,  but  should  not  be  cut  more  than  four  or  five  days  before 
feeding;  neither  should  it  be  fed  while  frozen. 

The  methods  of  growing  are  similar  to  those  for  cabbage,  the  plants 
being  grown  hi  a  seed-bed  and  transplanted  in  the  field  early  in  the  spring. 

Cabbage  and  any  of  the  root  crops  that  tend  to  give  a  peculiar  taste 
to  milk  should  always  be  fed  soon  after  the  milking  period  and  never  for 
several  hours  just  prior  to  it.  This  precaution  in  feeding  is  said  to  obviate 
the  disagreeable  flavor  which  is  frequently  imparted  to  the  milk. 

Artichokes. — This  crop,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  belongs 
to  the  sunflower  family,  and  both  the  tops  and  tubers  are  relished  by 
livestock.  They  are  cultivated  much  after  the  manner  of  potatoes,  although 
planted  somewhat  farther  apart.  Yields  of  200  to  500  bushels  of  tubers 
per  acre  have  been  reported. 

Artichokes  are  valuable  as  forage,  chiefly  for  hogs,  which  may  be 
turned  into  the  fields  and  allowed  to  harvest  the  crop  themselves.  The 
tubers  keep  in  the  ground  all  winter  and  usually  enough  of  them  are  left 
by  the  hogs  to  produce  a  new  crop  for  next  year. 

Cassava. — This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  tropics  and  is  adapted  to  Florida 
and  the  Gulf  Coast  portion  of  the  states  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
It  is  a  large  growing,  bushy  plant  attaining  a  height  of  four  to  ten  feet  and 
produces  horizontal,  fleshy  roots  or  tubers  three  to  five  feet  long  and  from 
one  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  While  it  will  grow  on  quite 
a  variety  of  soils,  it  can  be  economically  produced  only  on  loose,  sandy  soils 
which  will  enable  the  easy  harvesting  of  the  roots.  On  fertile  soils  and  with 
good  cultural  methods,  yields  of  five  to  ten  tons  per  acre  of  roots  are 
reported.  The  roots  are  very  high  in  starch  and  sugar  content  and  make 
an  excellent  food  for  all  kinds  of  livestock.  The  crop  is  quite  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch. 

Cassava  is  propagated  by  means  of  portions  of  the  roots  or  stems  which 
are  stored  in  the  dry  during  the  winter.  The  roots  or  seed  canes  are  cut 
into  pieces  of  the  desired  length  and  planted  in  the  spring  after  danger  of 
frost  is  past.  They  are  usually  planted  four  feet  apart  each  way  and  cov- 
ered with  a  few  inches  of  moist  earth. 

Chufa. — This  is  a  sedge-like  plant  with  creeping  root  stocks  which 
produce  great  numbers  of  edible  tubers.  These  are  small,  sweet  and 


172  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

frequently  used  as  human  food  or  pasture  for  hogs.  The  yield  varies  greatly 
ranging  from  50  to  300  bushels  of  tubers  per  acre.  The  plant  is  propagated 
by  planting  the  tubers  in  the  spring  in  rows  sufficiently  far  apart  to  permit 
cultivation.  The  rate  of  planting  is  about  the  same  as  for  potatoes. 

Taro. — Thi  plant,  commonly  grown  for  its  edible  roots  in  the  tropics, 
is  more  familiar  to  persons  in  the  United  States  as  seen  in  the  large-leaved, 
ornamental  plant  sometimes  called  "  elephant's  ear."  The  tubers  are 
similar  to  potatoes  in  composition.  It  requires  a  long  season  for  its  growth 
and  is  adapted  only  to  Florida  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  Gulf  states. 
The  bulbs  are  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long  and  three  to  four  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  grown  chiefly  for  human  food,  but  in  semi-tropical  districts 
may  be  used  as  a  forage  for  livestock. 

Youtia. — This  plant  closely  resembles  the  taro  and  is  similar  in  its 
requirements  and  uses.  The  yield  of  tubers  under  favorable  conditions 
may  be  ten  to  fifteen  tons  per  acre.  They  are  harvested  by  pulling, 
supplemented  by  the  use  of  the  hoe.  No  doubt  machinery  such  as  is  used 
for  the  harvesting  of  sugar-beets  could  be  utilized  for  the  harvesting  of  this 
crop  and  the  one  preceding. 

REFERENCES 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 
309.     "Root  Crops."     Pages  7  to  15. 
465.     "  Methods  of  Storing  Root  Crops." 


CHAPTER   14 
THE  POTATO 

BY  ALVA  AGEE 
Director,  Agricultural  Extension,  Rutgers  College,  N.  J. 

The  potato  is  one  of  the  world's  most  important  products  for  human 
food.  The  United  States  have  been  producing  between  350,000,000  and 
400,000,000  bushels,  and  Canada  between  70,000,000  and  85,000,000  bushels 
annually.  Adaptability  to  this  crop  gives  high  value  to  land  near  good 
markets,  and  good  transportation  facilities  have  made  the  crop  profitable 


THE  POTATO  CROP.1 

in  sections  of  the  country  that  must  ship  their  products  long  distances. 
The  Southern  states,  growing  their  crop  in  the  cool  months  of  the  spring, 
supply  Northern  markets  during  the  summer,  and  in  the  fall  scores  of 
millions  of  bushels  are  sent  southward  from  the  Northern  states.  The  crop 
is  important  not  only  for  the  reason  that  it  produces  a  large  amount  of 
human  food  per  acre,  but  on  account  of  the  reward  it  offers  to  the  grower's 
skill.  The  limit  to  production  per  acre  is  unknown,  but  it  is  a  conservative 
statement  that  the  present  average  yield  in  this  country  could  be  doubled. 

*  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  365,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

\J173) 


374  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

The  Soil. — The  potato  is  a  tuber  developing  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  displacing  soil  particles  as  it  grows.  Therefore,  a  mellow  soil  is 
essential.  The  best  potato  lands  are  naturally  loose,  but  somewhat  heavy 
soils  have  been  brought  into  profitable  production  by  the  free  use  of  organic 
matter  from  sods  and  cover  crops.  A  good  potato  soil  is  retentive  of 
moisture,  and  rotted  organic  matter  in  it  serves  as  the  best  insurance 
against  drought.  Some  light,  sandy  soils  of  the  seaboard  states  are  put 
into  productive  condition  by  means  of  cover  crops  and  manure  which  give 
them  body  and  excellent  physical  condition.  Soils  naturally  too  compact 
for  the  potato  may  be  made  loose,  friable  and  retentive  of  moisture  by  the 
same  means. 

Crop  Rotation. — The  history  of  potato  production  in  other  countries 
as  well  as  our  own  teaches  clearly  that  this  crop  should  be  grown  in  rota- 
tion with  others  and  that  when  the  crop  rotation  is  shorter  than  four  years 
there  is  great  danger  of  ultimate  failure.  The  practice  of  growing  potatoes 
year  after  year  on  the  same  land,  using  a  winter  cover  crop,  or  of  using  a 
rotation  of  two  years  only,  may  prevail  for  a  number  of  years  in  a  region 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  crop,  but  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  until  yields 
will  be  badly  cut  by  disease  and  lack  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil.  One 
excellent  crop  rotation  is  clover,  corn,  potatoes  and  grain,  followed  by 
clover.  The  manure  is  put  on  the  field  for  corn,  and  both  it  and  the  sod 
are  thoroughly  rotted  for  the  potato  the  following  year.  Another  rotation 
of  some  reputation  is  clover,  potatoes  and  wheat.  The  clover  sod  rots 
more  readily  than  a  grass  sod  and  feeds  the  potato  and  at  the  same  time 
keeps  the  soil  mellow.  A  fresh-turned  grass  sod  does  not  favor  this  crop. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  follow  grass  with  potatoes  the  sod  should  be  broken 
in  the  fall,  and  if  there  is  danger  of  undue  leaching,  a  winter  cover  crop  of 
rye  or  wheat  should  be  grown. 

Soil  Preparation. — A  deep  soil  holds  moisture  better  than  a  shallow 
one,  and  our  more  productive  potato  lands  have  been  made  and  are  kept 
deep  by  proper  plowing.  A  shallow  soil  should  be  deepened  gradually, 
and  the  best  part  of  the  sod  never  should  be  thrown  into  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow.  A  breaking-plow  having  a  short,  straight  mold-board  is  to  be 
preferred  for  all  land  that  is  at  all  deficient  in  humus,  as  it  is  essential  that 
some  organic  matter  be  in  the  surface  soil.  The  time  of  plowing  is  a  local 
question.  Wherever  leaching  is  not  to  be  feared  and  early  planting  is 
practiced,  fall  plowing  is  advised.  When  land  is  broken  in  the  fall  or  very 
early  in  the  spring,  it  is  less  subject  to  summer  drought  than  late-plowed 
ground.  We  should  bear  in  mind  all  the  time  that  a  supply  of  moisture  is  a 
big  consideration  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  ground  that  should  be 
kept  chiefly  in  view.  The  use  of  a  heavily  weighted,  sharp,  disk  harrow  on 
sod  land  before  it  is  broken  does  much  to  hasten  decay  after  the  plowing 
and  to  insure  prime  physical  condition.  It  is  easy  to  do  harm  by  tramping 
plowed  land  with  horses  in  the  spring,  and  disking  before  plowing  reduces 
the  amount  of  required  preparation  after  the  plowing. 


THE    POTATO  175 


The  Seed. — The  potato  thrives  in  a  relatively  cold  climate  and  loses 
vigor  when  grown  during  midsummer  in  warm  latitudes.  The  best  seed  is 
obtained  from  our  northernmost  states,  grown  in  midsummer,  or  from  more 
southern  states  when  grown  in  the  cool  months  of  autumn.  As  a  rule,  the 
northern  seed  is  preferred,  partly  because  it  is  in  abundant  supply. 

Successful  growlers  prefer  potatoes  of  marketable  size  for  planting. 
The  tubers  are  enlarged  underground  stems,  and  their  vitality  may  be 
measured  by  that  of  the  vines  which  produce  them.  A  small  potato,  known 
as  a  second,  may  have  been  set  late  by  a  vine  of  strong  vitality  which 
produced  also  a  big  crop  of  merchantable  tubers.  In  that  case  the  small 
potato  makes  fairly  good  seed,  and  would  be  just  as  desirable  as  a  section 
of  a  large  potato  if  it  did  not  put  out  any  more  sprouts  than  the  cut  portion 
of  a  large  tuber.  On  the  other  hand,  many  seconds  are  small  because  the 
vines  producing  them  lacked  in  vitality.  Experience  has  taught  that 
growers  depending  upon  seconds  soon  have  a  large  percentage  of  plants 
that  lack  full  productive  power.  Potato  yields  in  the  warmer  latitudes  of 
the  Northern  states  are  kept  low  by  the  use  of  home-grown  seed  which 
necessarily  has  had  vitality  impaired. 

The  amount  of  seed  per  acre  depends  somewhat  upon  variety,  but 
relatively  heavy  seeding  is  profitable.  The  grower  wants  sufficient  foliage 
to  cover  and  shade  the  soil  thoroughly,  and  ordinarily,  that  requires  the 
use  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  The  seed  piece  should 
be  a  block  of  potato  sufficiently  large  to  average  two  eyes  to  the  piece.  The 
size  of  the  seed  piece  is  important  in  insuring  a  good  stand,  and  the  cutting 
should  be  related  more  to  size  of  the  piece  than  to  number  of  eyes.  In  some 
instances  there  will  be  only  one  bud  which  may  produce  two  or  three  good 
stalks,  and  in  other  cases  a  seed  piece  of  right  size  may  have  three  eyes. 
Close  cutting  and  any  skimping  of  the  amount  of  seed  result  in  loss  under 
ordinary  conditions,  however  successful  they  may  be  in  a  very  fine  and 
fertile  soil  having  the  right  amount  of  moisture  immediately  after  planting. 

Fertilization. — Large  areas  of  sandy  loams  are  planted  with  potatoes 
because  they  have  right  physical  condition  and  partly  because  they  mature 
a  crop  early  in  the  season.  Sandy  soils  are  badly  deficient  in  potash,  and  it 
has  come  about  that  most  growers  think  of  the  potato  as  a  plant  requiring 
unusually  heavy  applications  of  potash.  Manufacturers  of  fertilizers  have 
fostered  this  idea,  but  the  results  of  careful  experiments  have  shown  within 
recent  years  that  phosphoric  acid  should  be  the  controlling  element  in  the 
potato  fertilizer,  just  as  it  is  in  the  fertilizer  for  corn  and  most  other  staple 
crops.  In  normal  soils  of  great  natural  strength  no  commercial  fertilizer 
may  be  used,  but  when  need  first  develops,  phosphoric  acid  is  the  require- 
ment. This  occurs  even  where  clover  and  stable  manure  are  freely  used. 
Commercial  growers,  as  a  rule,  make  no  use  of  stable  manure  direct  to 
potatoes,  as  it  furnishes  ideal  conditions  for  the  development  of  disease, 
and  especially  of  the  scab.  In  the  case  of  naturally  fertile  land  the  manure 
applied  for  corn  and  the  legumes  in  the  rotation  may  furnish  the  most  of 


THE  CONDITION  OP  SEED  POTATOES  DEPENDS  ON  CHARACTER  OF  STORAGE. 

1 — Stored  in  cool  place.    2 — Stored  in  warm  place,  tubers 
shrunken  and  vitality  impaired. 


176 


THE    POTATO 


177 


the  needed  nitrogen,  and  the  decay  of  the  vegetable  matter  may  free  all  of 
the  potash  required,  but  we  now  have  relatively  small  areas  in  which 
phosphorus  does  not  add  materially  to  crop  yields.  As  potato  production 
continues,  a  need  of  nitrogen  develops,  and  as  has  been  said,  potash  is  a 
requirement  for  most  sandy  soils.  A  lack  of  fertility  may  be  met  by  use  of 
a  fertilizer  containing  3  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  10  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid 
and  5  or  6  per  cent  potash  excepting,  naturally,  areas  where  the  percentage 
of  nitrogen  must  be  increased.  The  amount  of  fertilizer  used  per  acre 
varies  greatly.  Some  growers  in  the  seaboard  states  apply  one  ton  of  a 
high-grade  complete  fertilizer  per  acre,  and  many  growers  on  naturally 


A  POTATO  PLANTER.1 

fertile  soil  in  the  Central  states  use  none  at  all.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  apply  all  of  the  fertilizer  in  the  row,  and  when  the  amount  is  in  excess 
of  1000  pounds  per  acre,  there  is  danger  of  injury  to  the  plants  as  they  start 
growth 

Lime  is  not  applied  to  land  immediately  before  potatoes  are  planted, 
as  it  favors  the  development  of  potato  scab.  Acid  soils  are  more  free  from 
this  disease  than  alkaline  ones,  but  clover  demands  lime  and  is  needed  in  a 
rotation  with  potatoes.  The  best  practice  is  to  use  finely  pulverized 
limestone  rather  than  burned  lime  and  to  make  the  application  immediately 
after  the  potato  crop  in  the  rotation. 

The  Planting. — As  the  potato  thrives  best  in  cold  latitudes  the  planting 
should  be  made  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring  in  the  Southern  states  and 

iFrom  Fanners'  Bulletin  365,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


178  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

the  southern  tier  of  the  Northern  states.  The  only  exception  is  in  the  case 
of  midsummer  planting  with  the  aim  of  securing  a  crop  in  the  fall.  Farther 
north  the  planting  may  be  later  in  the  spring,  although  the  tendency  in 
recent  years  has  been  away  from  June  planting. 

The  depth  of  planting  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
variety.  Where  an  early  crop  is  wanted,  the  planting  is  shallow,  but  for  a 
main  crop  in  loose  soils  the  depth  should  be  at  least  three  inches  below  the 
dead  level  of  the  surface. 

A  planter  does  more  satisfactory  work  than  can  be  done  by  hand, 
dropping  the  seed  in  a  more  direct  line.  The  width  between  rows  may  vary 
from  thirty  to  thirty-five  inches  and  the  distance  between  the  seed  pieces 
in  the  row  should  be  sufficient  to  require  about  fourteen  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre.  This  is  a  surer  rule  than  any  fixed  number  of  inches,  as  much  depends 
upon  the  cutting. 

Cultivation. — A  soil  that  is  sufficiently  retentive  of  moisture  for  the 
potato  usually  inclines  to  become  more  compact  than  is  desired.  The 
preparation  of  the  soil  and  the  planting  compacts  some  of  the  ground 
beneath  the  surface.  A  few  days  after  the  planting  is  finished  it  is  good 
practice  to  give  a  very  deep  and  close  cultivation,  the  shovels  being  guided 
by  the  furrows  made  in  covering.  Later  the  weeder  or  harrow  should  be 
used  to  level  the  ground  and  kill  all  weeds  so  that  the  potato  plants  will 
come  up  in  a  fresh,  clean  soil.  Close  and  deep  tillage  should  be  given  when 
all  the  plants  are  above  ground,  and  later  the 'cultivation  should  be  more 
shallow  so  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  will  not  be  unduly  disturbed.  Level 
culture  enables  the  grower  to  keep  the  maximum  amount  of  moisture  in 
the  soil,  but  dependence  upon  mechanical  diggers  has  led  practical  growers 
to  ridge  the  rows  and,  when  the  growing  is  on  a  large  scale,  this  is  the  only 
practical  method  of  controlling  grass  and  weeds.  Cultivation  should 
continue  until  the  vines  fill  the  middles,  and  the  last  cultivation  should  be 
given  by  a  light  one-horse  cultivator  that  will  slip  under  fallen  vines.  The 
early  cultivation  should  keep  the  soil  loose  and  later  cultivation  should 
keep  the  surface  well  mulched  with  loose  earth  and  should  prevent  any 
growth  of  weeds. 

Diseases. — The  number  of  virulent  potato  diseases  is  increasing  in 
this  country,  and  the  grower  should  study  the  latest  bulletins  from  his  state 
experiment  station.  He  will  be  informed  regarding  the  formalin  treatment 
for  the  seed  before  planting,  that  gives  control  of  some  diseases.  All 
potato  seed  should  be  given  this  treatment,  which  consists  of  soaking  the 
seed  for  two  hours  in  a  solution  of  formaldehyde  made  by  diluting  one  pint 
of  40  per  cent  formaldehyde  in  30  gallons  of  water.  This  should  be  done 
before  the  seed  is  cut  and  under  no  circumstances  should  scabby  seed  be 
planted  without  this  treatment. 

Close  examination  of  the  seed  pieces  when  cutting  is  an  aid.  Mechani- 
cal cutters  are  not  advised  and  partly  for  this  reason.  All  tubers  showing 
discoloration  of  any  sort  should  be  rejected. 


THE     POTATO  170 


Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  increases  the  yield  of  potatoes 
through  stimulation,  and  is  profitable,  except  in  case  of  very  highly  fer- 
tilized soil,  even  when  no  blight  prevails.  The  early  blight  which  is 
prevalent  in  the  southern  tier  of  our  Northern  states  is  not  well  controlled 
by  spraying,  but  in  cooler  latitudes  where  the  late  blight  prevails  spraying 
should  never  be  omitted.  Directions  for  making  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and 
applying  it  are  furnished  by  the  experiment  stations.  The  only  point  to  be 
emphasized  here  is  that  the  spraying  should  be  thoroughly  done,  insuring  a 
perfect  coating  of  the  plants,  and  that  is  possible  only  by  use  of  strong  pres- 
sure and  two  nozzles  to  the  row  when  the  plants  have  reached  some  size. 

Insect  Pests. — For  white  grubs  and  wire-worms,  which  may  render  a 
potato  crop  unmarketable,  there  is  no  remedy.  There  is  no  soil  treatment 
that  will  kill  these  pests.  The  grower  should  know  the  life  history  of  these 
insects  and  plan  his  rotation  as  far  as  possible  for  their  control.  Examina- 
tion will  show  whether  a  soil  is  infested  or  not  at  planting  time,  and  pota- 
toes should  not  be  planted  where  serious  injury  is  sure  to  come. 

The  potato  beetle  is  easily  controlled  by  use  of  arsenical  poisons  and 
these  should  be  on  the  plants  when  the  larvae  of  the  potato  beetle  are  hatch- 
ing. Two  pounds  of  Paris  green  or  four  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  fifty 
gallons  of  Bordeaux  will  prevent  injury  by  this  insect. 

The  flea-beetle  does  great  injury  not  only  by  impairing  the  vitality  of 
the  plant,  but  by  opening  the  way  for  disease  attacks.  Control  is  very 
difficult.  The  Bordeaux  mixture  repels  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours  and  to  that  extent  is  a  help. 

Harvesting  the  Crop. — An  early  crop  of  potatoes  when  dug  for  market 
in  hot  weather  must  have  careful  handling.  All  cut  and  bruised  tubers 
should  be  discarded.  If  there  is  reason  for  not  marketing  promptly,  the 
crop  is  safer  in  the  ground  than  out  of  it,  although  excessive  wet  weather 
may  cause  rot.  Later  varieties,  dug  usually  hi  the  fall  when  nights  are 
cool,  will  bear  placing  in  large  bulk. 

The  best  diggers  elevate  the  soil  of  the  row  with  the  tubers  and,  having 
sifted  the  soil  back,  drop  the  tubers  on  top  of  the  fresh  surface.  Such 
diggers  are  relatively  expensive  and  small  growers  use  low-priced  diggers 
that  do  fairly  good  work.  When  good  seed  is  planted  in  highly  fertilized  soil 
the  percentage  of  seconds  may  be  so  small  that  little  grading  is  required, 
but  it  never  pays  to  send  to  market  any  tubers  below  merchantable  grade. 

REFERENCES 

"The  Potato."     Fraser. 

"Potatoes  for  Profit."     Van  Ornam. 

"The  Potato."     Grubb  and  Gilford. 

"Potatoes:   How  to  Grow  and  Show  Them."     Pink. 

South  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  155.     "Selection  of  Seed  Potatoes." 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

365.     "Farm  Management  in  Northern  Potato  Sections." 
386.     "Potato  Culture  on  Irrigated  Farms  of  the  West." 
407.     "The  Potato  as  a  Truck  Crop." 
533.    "Good  Seed  Potatoes  and  How  to  Produce  Them." 


CHAPTER   15 


SUGAR  CROPS  (CANE,  BEET  AND  MAPLE  SUGAR,  AND  SORGHUM) 

BY  W.  H.  DARST 
Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

The  world's  sugar  supply  is  manufactured  from  two  plants,  namely, 
the  sugar-beet  (Beta  vulgaris)  and  the  sugar-cane  (Saccharum  offitinarum). 
The  amount  of  sugar  secured  from  the  maple  tree  is  insignificant. 

SUGAR-BEETS 

The  development  of  the  sugar-beet  industry  dates  back  to  March  18, 
1811,  when  the  French  Emperor  dictated  a  note  to  his  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  instructing  him  to  see  that  90,000  acres  of  beets  were  planted. 
He  then  appropriated  1,000,000  francs  with  which  to  establish  schools  of 
instruction,  and  to  be  given  in  bonuses  to  those  who  erected  factories. 
Even  though  sugar-beet  was  an  unknown  crop,  the  farmers  were  compelled 
to  giow  them.  At  the  end  of  two  years  France  was  producing  7,700,000 
pounds  of  sugar.  By  1836  the  production  of  sugar  in  France  amounted  to 
40,000  tons.  At  this  time  Germany  observed  that  sugar-beets  in  France 
had  revolutionized  French  agriculture.  By  growing  beets  in  the  rotation 
the  yield  of  all  the  cereals  was  increased  to  an  even  greater  extent  than  where 
turnips  were  grown,  as  in  England.  Up  to  this  time  Germany  had  not  been 
able  to  induce  her  farmers  to  grow  beets  of  their  own  accord.  Germany 
then  adopted  the  French  plan  of  governmental  aid  to  establish  the  industry. 
Other  European  countries  soon  followed  the  same  plan,  with  the  result  that 
today  one-half  of  the  world's  supply  of  sugar  is  derived  from  European 
sugar-beets/ 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  world's  production  of  beet  and  cane 
sugar  compared: 


Short  Tons. 

1911-12. 

1912-13. 

1913-14. 

Cane  sugar  

10,253,000 

10  699  000 

11  118  000 

Beet  sugar  

7,072,000 

8  365  000 

9  765  000 

Total  production  ,  . 

17,325,000 

19,064,000 

20  883  000 

(180) 


SUGAR    CROPS 


181 


The  countries  leading  in  the  production  of  both  beet  and  cane  sugar 
in  1914  were  as  follows: 


Beet  Sugar. 


Cane  Sugar. 


Country. 

Short  Tons. 

Country. 

Short  Tons. 

2  886000 

Cuba                  

2,909,000 

2  031  000 

British  India  

2,534,000 

Austria-Hungary 

1  858000 

Java  

1,591,000 

France 

861,000 

Hawaii  

612,000 

United  States 

733  000 

Porto  Rico                         

364,000 

Italv 

337,000 

United  States  (Louisiana  and 

Texas)  

300,000 

The  development  of  the  sugar-beet  industry  in  the  United  States  is  of 
comparatively  recent  date.     It  was  not  until  1906  that  the  production  of 


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B73 1810  ll!l  1812  IM3IM4  HIS  18 JS  1117 1111 1»3  U9I I1JI  1192  H93 11M  B35  IMS  1397 119!  1199 1900 1901  190?  1903  1904  DOS  BK  Ml  BO!  190) 

COMBINED    1909     HARVEST     OF  /UNITED  STATES  =    swooo  ACRES.     1.9*7.068,000  BUSHELS. 

WHEAT  RYE  BARLEY  AND  OATS 


1  GERMANY 


34,378.536   ACRES.       U73.000.000    BUSHELS, 


AGRICULTURAL  PROGRESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  GERMANY. 

sugar  from  beets  exceeded  that  from  sugar-cane.  At  present  the  produc- 
tion of  beet  sugar  has  more  than  doubled  that  of  cane  sugar  in  the  United 
States.  (See  above  table,) 


182 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  leading  states  in  the  production  of  beet  sugar,  in  the  order  of  their 

production,  are:   Colorado,  California,  Michigan,  Utah,  Idaho  and  Ohio. 

In  the  past  and  even  at  present,  many  farmers  think  beet  culture 

injures  the  soil.     This,  with  the  high  cost  of  extracting  the  sugar  from  the 

beet,  has  made  progress  in  beet  culture  in  this  country  very  slow. 

Results  obtained  in  Germany  and  other  European  countries,  when 
beets  are  introduced  into  the  rotation,  suggest  that  the  farmers  of  the 
United  States,  having  the  proper  conditions  for  production,  would  do  well 
to  introduce  them  into  their  rotations.  European  farmers  do  not  find  the 
beet  crop  in  itself  highly  profitable,  but  the  extra  cultivation  and  fertiliza- 
tion necessary  to  grow  them,  has  greatly  increased  the  yields  of  all  other 
crops,  in  the  rotation,  especially  the  cereals. 

For  the  most  part  the  profit  is  made  indirectly 
from  the  beet  crop.  The  preceding  chart  from  the 
loose-leaf  service  of  the  United  States  Sugar  Manu- 
facturers' Association  compares  the  average  yields 
of  cereals  in  Germany,  a  beet-raising  country,  with 
those  of  the  same  crops  in  the  United  States,  where 
very  few  beets  or  roots  are  grown. 

Adaptation. — The  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
are  very  important  factors  in  growing  beets  with 
high  sugar  content.  They  are  not  as  widely 
adapted  as  other  farm  crops  commonly  grown  in 
this  country.  Plenty  of  moisture  and  sunshine, 
particularly  during  early  growth,  are  essential  to 
the  production  of  beets  with  high  sugar  content. 
Ideal  conditions  are  found  most  commonly  in  the 
irrigated  districts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Pacific  Coast,  although  many  Northern  states 
have  favorable  conditions  for  sugar-beet  growing. 

Sugar-beets  require  deep,  well-drained  soils.  They  do  best  on 
rich  loam  or  sandy  loam  and  are  not  adapted  to  clays,  muck  or  peaty 
soils. 

Preparation  of  Land. — The  root  of  the  sugar-beet  grows  entirely  or 
mostly  underground,  the  smaller  roots  often  reaching  a  depth  of  four  to 
six  feet.  For  this  reason,  a  deep  soil  and  a  deeply  prepared  seed-bed  are 
necessary.  Beet  ground  should  be  plowed  eight  to  twelve  inches  deep,  and 
where  possible  a  subsoiler  may  be  used  with  good  results.  Fall  plowing  is 
advised  where  conditions  will  permit.  It  is  very  important  that  the  seed- 
bed be  well  prepared.  The  land  should  be  worked  often  enough  to  secure 
a  fine,  firm,  moist  seed-bed.  It  is  necessary  to  obtain  a  soil  free  from  weeds 
or  weed-seeds.  Beets  grow  slowly  at  first,  and  if  weeds  are  allowed  to  start, 
considerable  hand  labor  will  be  required  to  eradicate  them.  Beets  should 
never  be  grown  in  continuous  culture.  The  rotation  will  depend  on  the 

1  Courtesy  of  California  Agricultural  College. 


SUGAR-BEET. 


SUGAR    CROPS  183 


crops  common  to  the  region  where  grown.  A  three,  four  or  five-year  rota- 
tion, including  a  legume  crop,  should  be  used  when  growing  beets. 

Fertilization. — Barnyard  manure  and  high-grade  fertilizer  are  used  with 
profit  on  beets.  The  manure  should  be  well  rotted  when  applied,  so  as  to 
lessen  the  chances  of  weed-seed.  High-grade  fertilizers,  selected  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  soil,  should  be  used. 

In  European  countries  beets  are  fertilized  very  heavily.  This  produces 
a  large  tonnage  of  beets  and  the  residual  effect  of  the  fertilizer  is  taken  up 
by  the  crops  that  follow. 

Seeding  and  Cultivation. — The  beet  plant  produces  seed  in  balls  or 
capsules  containing  one  to  five  seeds.  It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  regu- 
late the  rate  of  seeding  so  as  to  get  a  satisfactory  distribution  of  plants  in 
the  row.  The  seed  is  drilled  rather  thickly,  and  when  the  plants  are  large 
enough,  they  are  thinned  to  the  required  distance  in  the  row.  The  seed 
is  ordinarily  sown  with  a  beet  drill,  which  sows  several  rows  at  a  time.  The 
distance  between  rows  varies  from  twenty  to  twenty-eight  inches.  To 
insure  a  full  stand  of  plants,  about  twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  to  the 
acre.  In  irrigated  sections,  beets  are  often  sown  in  double  rows  one  foot 
apart  and  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  inches  between  each  pair  of  rows. 
Beet-seed  should  be  sown  early  hi  May  or  after  the  ground  warms  up. 
Cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  followed  and  continued 
at  intervals  of  six  to  ten  days,  until  the  tops  nearly  meet  between  the  rows. 
A  special  beet  cultivator  is  used  that  will  cultivate  several  rows  at  a  time. 

The  thinning  of  the  plants  should  be  done  about  the  time  the  fifth 
leaf  is  formed.  Thinning  is  done  by  first  blocking  or  bunching  with  a  hoe. 
This  consists  of  cutting  out  the  plants  in  the  row,  leaving  small  bunches 
eight  to  ten  inches  apart.  After  blocking,  further  thinning  is  necessary, 
leaving  but  one  plant  in  each  bunch.  The  blocking  and  thinning,  hoeing, 
pulling  and  topping  of  the  beets  are  done  by  hand  labor.  On  the  larger  beet 
farms  this  work  is  generally  done  by  foreigners  under  contract. 

Harvesting. — Beets  should  be  harvested  before  danger  of  frost  in  the 
fall;  if  not  worked  up  immediately,  the  roots  should  be  protected  from 
freezing.  Harvesting  consists  of  lifting,  pulling,  topping,  piling  and  hauling 
away  the  roots.  Lifting  is  done  by  a  special  implement  that  loosens  the 
roots  in  the  soil.  The  pulling,  topping  and  piling  are  done  by  hand.  In 
topping,  the  leaves  are  sometimes  simply  twisted  off.  A  much  better 
method  of  topping,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  manufacturer,  is  to  remove 
the  tops  with  a  sharp  knife  at  the  lowest  leaf  scar  on  the  root.  The  part 
of  the  beet  that  grows  above  ground  is  not  desirable.  The  sugar  content 
of  this  part  is  low,  and  there  is  a  high  percentage  of  minerals  that  may 
crystallize  the  sugar  at  the  wrong  time  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

Seed  Production. — The  sugar-beet  is  a  biennial,  producing  seed  the 

second  year.    Almost  all  of  the  seed  used  in  this  country  is  imported.    When 

grown  for  seed,  only  beets  with  high  sugar  content  should  be  saved.     This 

selection  is  based  on  the  percentage  of  sugar  as  determined  in  a  small  sample 

21 


184 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


taken  out  of  the  side  of  the  root  with  a  trier.  .  The  hole  made  by  the  trier 
is  filled  with  charcoal  or  clay  to  prevent  rotting.  The  selected  beets  are 
stored  over  winter  in  sand,  in  a  dry  cellar  or  pit.  The  next  spring  these 
roots  are  planted  in  rows  to  produce  seed.  From  three  to  five  plants  will 
produce  a  pound  of  seed. 

Manufacture  of  Beet  Sugar.— At  the  factory  the  beets  are  washed  in 
sluiceways,  then  sliced  into  long  strips  called  "cosettes  "     The  juice  is 


A  GOOD  STAND  AND  VIGOROUS  GROWTH  OF  SUGAR-BEETS.  l 


removed  by  applying  hot  water  to  the  sliced  beets,  leaving  a  product  known 
as  beet  pulp.  This  juice  is  purified  by  adding  small  quantities  of  lime.  The 
lime  combines  with  the  foreign  matter  and  is  filtered  out.  The  purified 
juice  is  then  placed  in  vacuum  pans  and  boiled  until  the  sugar  crystallizes. 
The  sugar  is  removed  by  placing  the  product  in  a  large  centrifugal  machine, 
lined  with  fine  sieves.  The  whirling  motion  drives  off  the  molasses  through 
the  sieves,  and  the  sugar  is  retained.  The  sugar  is  then  dried  and  is  ready 

iU.  S,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  P.  I.  Bulletin  238. 


SUGAR    CROPS  185 


for  market.  The  molasses,  to  which  is  added  a  little  fresh  juice,  is  again 
boiled  in  vacuum  pans  until  the  remaining  sugar  crystallizes.  The  sugar 
is  separated  out  as  before,  the  product  being  known  as  second  sugar.  The 
molasses,  after  the  second  boiling,  is  sold  as  stock  feed. 

By-Products  of  Beet  Farming. — Beet  tops  left  on  the  field  after  harvest- 
ing may  be  cured  as  forage  to  be  fed  to  livestock.  If  not  fed,  they  should 
be  spread  evenly  over  the  ground  and  plowed  under  as  a  fertilizer. 

Beet  pulp,  a  by-product  of  the  sugar  factory,  is  an  excellent  substitute 
for  corn  silage.  Wet  beet  pulp  contains  about  90  per  cent  of  water  and  10 
per  cent  of  solids,  which  compares  favorably  with  mangels  as  a  feed.  Many 
factories  dry  the  pulp.  Dried  pulp  makes  a  better  feed,  hi  that  it  remains 
in  better  condition  for  a  longer  time  and  is  worth  about  eight  times  as  much 
as  the  wet  pulp. 

Beet  molasses,  another  by-product,  is  not  palatable  when  fed  alone; 
but  when  mixed  with  dried  pulp,  chopped  hay  or  straw,  has  considerable 
feeding  value. 

CANE   SUGAR 

Sugar-cane  has  been  cultivated  for  many  centuries  in  the  tropical  and 
semi-tropical  portions  of  the  world.  According  to  the  best  authorities, 
sugar-cane  appears  to  have  originated  in  India.  From  there  it  was  taken 
to  China  and  other  parts  of  the  Old  World,  where  it  has  been  extensively 
cultivated  from  time  immemorial.  After  the  discovery  of  the  New  World 
sugar-cane  was  introduced  first  in  San  Domingo,  then  into  Mexico,  Marti- 
nique, Guadaloupe,  Cuba,  the  Guianas  and  the  warmer  states  of  South 
America. 

The  State  of  Louisiana  produces  almost  all  of  the  cane  sugar  produced 
in  the  United  States.  Texas  and  Florida  produce  some.  Sugar-cane  was 
first  introduced  into  Louisiana  in  1751,  but  sugar  was  not  manufactured 
from  it  until  about  1792. 

Description  and  Mode  of  Reproduction. — Sugar-cane  is  a  perennial 
grass,  growing  from  eight  to  fifteen  feet  tall.  The  stalks  are  thick  and 
heavy,  being  filled  with  a  sweet,  juicy  pith.  The  flowers  are  borne  in 
silky-like  panicles.  Seed  is  never  formed  in  this  country,  and  is  not 
abundantly  produced  in  Egypt  or  India.  Cane  in  its  wild  and  native 
state  reproduces  vegetatively  more  often  than  by  seeds. 

The  stalk  of  cane  is  divided  into  joints  or  nodes  and  internodes.  At 
each  joint  is  a  bud  which  under  proper  conditions  develops  into  a  stalk. 
Around  each  bud,  on  the  stalk,  are  semi-transparent  dots  which  develop 
into  roots  that  feed  the  bud  when  planted. 

Soils. — Sugar-cane  requires  a  large  quantity  of  water  during  the  grow- 
ing season;  consequently,  it  grows  best  on  soils  well  supplied  with  humus 
and  having  a  high  water-holding  capacity.  Well-drained  alluvial  bottoms 
and  muck  soils  are  very  good  soils  for  sugar-cane.  The  more  fertile  clay 
uplands  produce  cane  higher  in  sugar,  but  do  not  supply  the  required  amount 
of  water  for  large  yields. 


186  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Sugar-cane  is  adapted  to  tropical  or  semi-tropical  latitudes,  the  two 
predominating  essentials  to  growth  being  warmth  and  moisture.  A  mean 
annual  temperature  of  70°  F.  and  a  minimum  annual  rainfall  of  about  60 
inches  are  essential  to  the  successful  growth  of  sugar-cane.  One  of  the 
difficulties  in  growing  sugar-can  a  is  in  the  control  of  water.  In  Louisiana 
as  much  as  five  to  seven  inches  of  water  may  fall  during  one  rain.  The 
problem,  then,  is  to  get  rid  of  the  excess  water  before  it  damages  the  crop. 
Good  tile  drainage  is  necessary  on  most  of  these  sugar  plantations.  If  for 
any  reasons,  tile  drainage  is  not  possible,  it  is  then  necessary  to  depend  on 
surface  drainage. 

There  are  times  when  irrigation  is  necessary.  The  ideal  sugar-cane 
plantation  should  be  equipped  with  underdrainage  as  well  as  irrigation 
ditches.  In  Louisiana,  scarcely  a  year  passes  that  irrigation  water  cannot 
be  used  at  some  time.  Irrigation  may  be  used  to  help  prepare  the  seed-bed, 
as  well  as  to  supply  water  when  needed  for  the  growing  crop. 

Varieties  of  Cane. — Many  varieties  of  cultivated  cane  are  grown 
in  this  country.  These  have  been  and  are  being  introduced  from 
various  parts  of  the  world.  The  Louisiana  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  has  arranged  the  varieties  into  groups  and  then  under  classes  as 
follows: 

Class  one — white,  green  and  yellow  canes. 

Class  two — striped  canes. 

Class  three — solid  colors  other  than  class  one. 

In  the  Louisiana  Bulletin  No.  129,  the  variety  known  as  D.74,  a  light- 
colored  cane,  is  recommended  very  highly.  It  is  very  high  in  sugar  and 
outyields  by  20  per  cent  the  green  or  ribbon  canes. 

Rotation  and  Preparation  of  the  Land. — It  is  not  desirable  to  grow 
sugar-cane  continuously.  A  common  rotation  is  two  years  cane  and  one  of 
corn  and  cowpeas.  The  cowpeas  are  sown  in  the  corn  to  be  plowed  down 
for  the  benefit  of  the  cane  crop  which  follows.  The  plowing  is  generally 
done  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  The  land  must  be  plowed  very  deep,  the 
deeper  the  better,  up  to  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches.  Traction  plows  are 
quite  generally  used,  as  the  work  is  too  heavy  for  horses.  On  small  plan- 
tations, heavy  mules  and  disk  plows  are  used  to  break  the  soil. 

After  the  land  is  plowed  it  is  bedded  with  a  two-horse  mold-board  plow. 
This  gives  surface  drainage  between  each  two  rows  of  cane.  When  ready 
to  plant,  the  rows  are  opened  with  a  double  mold-board  plow.  Two  or 
more  running  stalks  are  deposited  in  this  furrow  and  covered  by  a  disk 
cultivator. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  in  Louisiana  that  fall  planting  gives  best 
results  when  winter  freezing  is  not  too  severe  and  when  the  seed-bed  is 
properly  prepared  and  drained.  Planting  may  take  place  any  time  from 
the  middle  of  September  to  the  first  of  April. 

Fertilizers.— Cane  is  a  rank-growing  plant  and  demands  the  liberal 
use  of  fertilizers.  Since  most  of  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  removed 


SUGAR    CROPS  187 


by  the  crop  is  returned  in  the  ash  and  the  waste  from  sugar  factories,  as 
explained  later,  nitrogen  is  the  only  element  of  fertility  that  need  be  pur- 
chased in  large  quantities.  The  humus  of  the  soil  must  be  kept  up  by  the 
application  of  barnyard  manure  and  by  plowing  down  legumes.  When 
nitrogen  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  it  should  be  applied  in  the  organic  form.  The 
nitrogen  in  cottonseed  meal  becomes  available  more  slowly  than  in  nitrate 
of  soda,  hence  this  carrier  is  better  adapted  to  the  long-growing  season 
required  for  sugar-cane. 

Cultivation. — Sugar-cane  is  cultivated  frequently  to  keep  down  weeds 
and  to  insure  rapid  growth  by  conserving  the  moisture.  Considerable 
hand  hoeing  is  necessary  as  the  cane  rows  can  be  cultivated  only  one  way. 
The  disk  is  a  favorable  type  of  cultivator;  however,  the  tooth  or  shovel 
types  are  also  used. 

Harvesting. — The  sugar  in  the  plant  increases  up  to  a  certain  stage  of 
ripeness.  While  the  maximum  amount  of  sugar  can  be  determined  only 
by  chemical  means,  the  grower  learns  to  determine  the  proper  stage  quite 
accurately  by  the  appearance  of  the  stalks  and  inflorescence  or  flower 
cluster.  For  economy  of  production,  it  is  desirable  to  continue  the  grinding 
of  cane  over  as  long  a  period  as  possible.  The  season  may  be  extended  by 
planting  at  different  times  and  by  using  varieties  that  vary  in  time  of  matu- 
rity on  different  types  of  soil. 

In  Louisiana  the  harvesting  begins  the  first  of  November.  The  cane 
is  cut  by  hand  and  is  a  very  slow  process.  The  plant  is  first  stripped  with 
the  back  of  the  cane  knife,  then  topped  and  cut  close  to  the  ground.  The 
stalks  are  thrown  in  piles  for  loading.  As  the  canes  begin  to  lose  sugar 
rapidly  in  twenty-four  hours  after  cutting,  they  are  usually  hauled  immedi- 
ately to  the  mill. 

Cane  Sugar  Manufacture. — At  the  factory  the  stalks  are  first  shredded. 
The  juice  is  then  pressed  out  by  running  this  shredded  material  through 
three  sets  of  heavy  steel  rollers.  After  passing  through  the  first  set  of 
rollers,  the  pressed  material  is  sprayed  with  hot  juice,  then  passed  through 
the  second  set  of  rollers.  In  turn,  this  material  is  sprayed  with  hot  water 
and  again  pressed.  In  this  way  from  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the  juice  is 
removed.  The  pressed  material  is  used  as  fuel  and  is  converted  into  the 
heat  and  power  necessary  to  operate  the  mill. 

The  juice  is  heated  and  purified  by  adding  milk  of  lime.  The 
lime  combines  with  the  impurities  and  is  filtered  out.  The  purified 
juice  is  then  concentrated  by  boiling  in  vacuum  pans  and  is  finally 
crystallized. 

The  principal  by-products  of  the  sugar-cane  factories  are  the  impurities 
combined  with  lime,  the  different  grades  of  syrup  and  molasses  and  the 
ashes  from  the  pressed  cane. 

Since  the  impurities  taken  out  in  combination  with  lime  contain  a 
large  part  of  the  phosphorus  and  potash  removed  by  the  crop,  this  product 
with  the  ashes  is  returned  to  the  soil  as  a  fertilizer. 


BooksC°Urtesy  of 


Chemical  Company,  Richmond,  Va.     Prom  V.-C.  Fertilizer  Crop 


188 


SUGAR    CROPS  189 


MAPLE  SUGAR 

The  making  of  maple  sugar,  like  every  other  farming  industry,  has 
changed  greatly 'within  the  last  fifty  years.  In  this  country  maple  sugar 
has  become  more  and  more  a  luxury,  and  less  a  necessity,  owing  to  the 
low  price  of  cane  and  beet  sugar. 

The  maple  sugar  production  of  the  United  States  during  the  year  1909 
was  14,060,206  pounds,  valued  at  $1,380,492.  The  following  states  lead 
in  the  production  of  maple  sugar:  Vermont,  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and 
New  Hampshire. 

Sugar  is  made  from  the  saps  of  several  varieties  of  maple  trees.  The 
two  most  important  are  the  Rock  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum)  and  the  Red 
Maple  (Acer  rubrum).  Ideal  sugar  weather  occurs  in  the  late  winter  or 
early  spring  when  the  days  are  warm  and  sunny  and  the  nights  cold  and 
frosty.  This  weather  starts  a  rapid  flow  of  sap  in  the  tree.  The  tree  is 
then  tapped  and  the  sap  collected  in  covered  buckets  made  for  the  purpose. 
The  sap  as  it  comes  from  the  tree  is  colorless  and  contains  on  the  average 
about  three  per  cent  of  sugar. 

Sugar  Making. — In  the  process  of  sugar  making,  the  sap  is  first  boiled 
down  in  evaporators;  then  boiled  to  a  much  greater  density  in  concen- 
trating pans. 

In  making  maple  syrup  the  sap  is  boiled  until  the  temperature  reaches 
about  219°  F. ;  in  making  sugar,  the  temperature  must  reach  234°  to  245°  F. 
The  boiling  of  maple  sap  for  syrup  must  be  done  over  a  hot  fire.  Boiling 
over  is  prevented  by  adding  cream  or  skim  milk  from  time  to  time.  While 
the  thermometer  is  used  to  determine  the  amount  of  boiling  necessary, 
an  experienced  individual  can  tell  simply  by  the  way  the  syrup  boils. 

The  brown  syrupy  fluid  is  then  cooled,  during  which  it  must  be  stirred 
vigorously  until  graining  begins.  The  soft  mass  is  then  poured  into  molds. 

SORGHUM 

Sugar  from  sorghum  has  never  been  manufactured  on  a  commercial 
scale,  although  it  has  been  made  in  small  quantities  and  in  an  experimental 
way.  The  difficulty  in  making  sugar  from  sorghum  lies  chiefly  in  the  fact 
that  there  is  only  a  very  short  period  in  the  life  of  the  plant  when  it  is 
possible  to  crystallize  sugar  from  its  juices.  The  period  is  so  short  and  the 
possibilities  of  detecting  the  right  period  are  so  difficult  that  it  makes 
sugar  making  from  this  plant  impracticable. 

The  plant  is  quite  extensively  used,  however,  in  the  manufacture  of 
molasses  or  syrup.  It  is  best  known  as  sorghum  molasses,  and  is  used  for 
cooking  purposes  more  extensively  than  for  the  table. 

The  requirements  and  cultural  methods  for  sorghum  are  given  in  the 
chapter  on  "Annual  Forage  Crops."  When  used  for  molasses  the  crop 
should  be  planted  in  drills  and  given  thorough  cultivation.  The  plants 
should  be  about  six  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  sorghum,  but  the  Early  Amber  is  the  only 


190  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

early  variety  given  any  particular  preference.  There  is  much  uncertainty 
as  to  the  quality  of  molasses  that  will  be  secured,  and  it  does  not  seem  to 
depend  either  upon  the  variety  used  or  the  method  of  making.  Experiments 
indicate  that  there  are  frequently  impurities  in  the  juice  which  interfere 
with  the  making  of  a  good  quality  of  molasses. 

In  general,  the  best  quality  of  molasses  is  secured  in  the  northern 
region  of  production  and  in  seasons  of  comparatively  low  rainfall  and 
abundant  sunshine.  It  is  essential  that  the  canes  be  harvested  at  the  right 
stage  of  maturity  and  that  there  be  uniformity  in  maturity.  Carelessness 
in  the  selection  of  seed  and  the  manner  of  planting  often  give  rise  to  canes 
varying  greatly  in  maturity  at  harvest  time.  It  is  very  important  to  have 
all  the  canes  about  the  same  height  and  of  the  same  maturity.  This  facili- 
tates the  removal  of  the  seed  heads  and  is  more  likely  to  produce  good 
molasses. 

REFERENCES 

"American  Sugar  Industry."     Myrick. 
"Cane  and  Beet  Sugar  Industry."     Martineau. 

Utah  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  136.     "Production  of  Sugar  Beet  Seed." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  238.     "  Sugar  Beets :  Preventable  Losses  in  Culture." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  260.     "American  Beet 

Sugar  Industry." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

516.     "Sugar  Beet  Growing  Under  Humid  Conditions." 

567.  "Sugar  Beet  Growing  Under  Irrigation." 

568.  "Production  of  Maple  Syrup  and  Sugar." 


CHAPTER   16 
COTTON  PRODUCTION 

BY  PROF.  E.  F.  CAUTHEN 
Associate  in  Agriculture,  Alabama  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Cotton,  the  second  most  valuable  crop  produced  in  the  United  States 
and  the  first  most  valuable  export,  is  grown  in  that  part  of  the  country 
lying  south  of  36  degrees  north  latitude  and  east  of  western  Texas.  This 
section  is  known  as  the  "  Cotton  Belt."  The  climate  and  soil  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  its  growth.  The  warm,  moist  spring  and  hot,  humid  summer 
favor  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  its  fruit ;  the  dry,  warm  autumn  matures 
and  opens  the  bolls  and  permits  the  picking  of  the  cotton. 

Species. — The  genus  (Gossypium  hirsutum)  includes  the  common 
long  and  short  staple  varieties  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  length 
of  lint  varies  from  one-half  inch  to  one  and  a  half  inches. 

Sea  Island  cotton  (Gossypium  barbadense)  grows  on  the  narrow  Sea 
Islands  along  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  and  in  some  of  the  interior 
counties  of  south  Georgia  and  north-central  Florida.  It  makes  the  long- 
est, finest  and  most  valuable  of  all  cotton  fibers.  Sea  Island  cotton  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  ordinary  upland  cotton  by:  (1)  its  long,  slender 
bolls  bearing  usually  three  locks,  (2)  deeply  lobed  leaves,  (3)  yellowish 
flowers  with  a  red  spot  on  each  petal,  and  (4)  many  black  seeds  almost 
necked,  with  long  slender,  silky  fiber.  Its  fiber  may  be  two  inches  long, 
and  is  separated  from  the  seed  by  the  roller-gin,  which  does  not  cut  the 
fiber  from  the  seed,  but  pushes  the  seed  out  of  the  fiber.  This  cotton  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  fabric  and  laces  and  in  the  finer  grades  of 
spool  cotton  thread. 

Characteristics  of  the  Plant. — Cotton  is  a  tap-root  plant.  In  loose 
soils  this  root  penetrates  to  considerable  depth,  even  into  the  subsoil. 
When  the  subsoil  is  hard,  poorly  drained  or  near  the  surface,  the  tap-root 
is  forced  aside  and  the  plant  becomes  dwarfed.  Most  lateral  roots  branch 
from  the  tap-root  near  the  surface  and  feed  shallow,  hence  the  need  of 
shallow  cultivation. 

On  fertile  soil  cotton  may  grow  five  or  six  feet  high.  From  its  nodes 
spring  two  kinds  of  branches,  vegetative  and  fruit-bearing.  The  lowest 
branches  or  vegetative  ones  are  often  called  base  limbs;  they  may  bear 
short  fruit-limbs.  As  the  top  of  the  plant  is  approached,  the  branches 
shorten,  giving  it  a  conical  shape.  The  bolls  of  cotton  are  borne  only  on 
fruit-limbs. 

Some  varieties,  like  Russell  and  Triumph,  produce  bolls  from  one  and 

(191) 


192 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


one-half  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  require  from  60  to  70  to  make  one 
pound  of  seed  cotton;  others,  like  King  and  Toole,  having  smaller  bolls, 
require  from  100  to  120  to  make  a  pound. 

Some  varieties  are  much  more  easily  picked  than  others.  If  the  parts 
of  the  boll  open  wide,  the  locks  of  cotton  are  easily  picked  out  by  hand  or 
blown  out  by  wind  or  beaten  out  by  rain;  but  if  the  parts  of  the  boll  do 
not  open  wide,  the  locks  may  cling  to  the  burs  and  suffer  less  damage  from 
wind  and  rain. 

Cotton  fiber  varies  in  length  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  the 
upland  varieties  to  two  inches  in  Sea  Island  cotton,  and  may  be  likened  to  a 

long,  slender,  flattened  tube 
with  two-thirds  of  its  length 
slightly  curled.  It  is  this 
curled  condition  of  a  fiber  that 
makes  it  valuable,  for  with- 
out it  the  fiber  could  not  ba 
spun  into  thread. 

Seed.  —  The  number  of 
seed  in  a  boll  varies  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty.  The  size 
of  seed  in  some  varieties  is 
larger  than  in  others.  Some 
varieties  have  green  seed,  some 
gray  and  still  others  have 
blackish  or  necked  seed.  In 
the  upland  varieties  most  seed 
are  covered  with  a  short  fuzz. 
A  bushel  of  seed  weighs  33f 
pounds. 

Varieties  of  Upland  Cot- 
ton Grouped.  —  The  cotton 
plant  is  a  native  of  the  tropics; 
but  under  the  influence  of  man, 
its  growth  has  been  extended 

far  into  the  temperate  zones  and  its  habit  changed  from  a  biennial  to 
an  annual.  Climate,  soil,  selection  and  cultivation  have  wrought  many 
changes  in  the  plant.  The  true  and  so-called  varieties  now  number 
several  hundred. 

To  facilitate  the  study  of  so  many  varieties,  a  system  of  grouping, 
worked  out  by  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station,  is  followed.     According 
to  form  of  plant,  size  of  boll,  time  of  maturing  and  other  characteristics, 
they  are  classified  into  six  groups:    cluster,  semi-cluster,  Peterkin,  Kii 
big-boll  and  long-staple  upland.    There  is  no  striking  demarcation  betweei 
any  two  groups,  but  a  gradual  blending  of  the  characters  of  one  into 
next  group. 


A  GOOD  COTTON  PLANT  SHOWING  GOOD  BASE 
LIMBS;  VARIETY,  COOK. 


COTTON    PRODUCTION  193 

Cluster  Group. — The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  cluster 
group  are  the  one  or  two  long  base  limbs  near  the  ground  and  above  them 
the  many  short  fruit-limbs  that  bear  the  bolls  in  clusters  of  two  or  three. 
The  plants  are  usually  tall,  slender  and  bend  over  under  the  weight  of  the 
green  bolls;  the  bolls  of  most  varieties  are  small,  pointed  and  difficult  to  pick. 

The  leading  varieties  of  the  cluster  group  are  Jackson  and  Dillon. 
The  Dillon  variety  is  important  where  cotton  wilt  (Neocosmospora  vasin- 
fecta)  exists,  because  of  its  considerable  immunity  to  this  disease. 

Semi-Cluster  Group. — This  group  somewhat  resembles  the  cluster 
group,  except  that  its  fruit-limbs  are  longer  and  the  bolls  do  not  grow  in 
clusters.  Its  varieties  have  medium  to  large  bolls  and  large,  white,  fuzzy 
seed. 

Two  well-known  varieties  of  this  group  are  Hawkins  and  Poulnot. 
Bolls  of  both  are  medium  size,  slightly  pointed  and  easily  picked.  One 
hundred  pounds  of  seed  cotton  yields  about  thirty-four  pounds  of  lint. 

Peterkin  Group. — The  fruit  and  vegetative  branches  of  the  varieties 
of  this  group  are  long  and  nearly  straight;  its  leaves  are  small  and  have 
rather  sharp-pointed  lobes;  its  bolls  are  medium  to  small  in  size;  its  seed 
is  small  and  many  of  them  are  without  much  fuzz.  A  striking  character- 
istic of  the  members  of  this  group  is  the  high  percentage  of  lint  that  they 
yield — often  as  high  as  40  per  cent. 

Some  of  the  well-known  varieties  of  this  group  are  Peterkin,  Toole, 
Layton  and  Dixie.  Layton  and  Peterkin  are  very  much  alike,  except  that 
Layton  does  not  have  as  many  necked  seed  and  is  probably  more  uniform  in 
type.  Toole  and  a  selection  from  it  called  Covington  Toole,  resemble 
both  King  and  Peterkin  groups.  Toole  has  small  bolls,  is  early  and  very 
productive.  Some  selections  from  Covington  Toole  are  fairly  immune  to 
cotton  wilt  and  are  extensively  grown  in  sections  affected  by  this  disease. 
Dixie  is  a  variety  that  is  being  bred  up  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  to  resist  cotton  wilt. 

King  Group. — This  group  embraces  the  earliest  varieties.  The  plants 
do  not  grow  large;  the  leaves  and  bolJs  are  usually  small.  Its  base  limbs 
are  often  wanting,  and  its  fruit  limbs  are  usually  long  and  crooked.  A 
distinguishing  mark  of  the  group  is  the  red  spot  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
petals  of  many  plants.  Most  varieties  drop  the  locks  of  cotton  on  the 
ground  when  they  are  rained  on  or  blown  by  hard  wind. 

The  leading  varieties  are  King,  Simpkins,  Bank  Account,  Broad  well, 
etc.  On  the  northern  border  of  the  cotton  belt  these  varieties  are  well 
adapted  because  of  their  earliness. 

Big-Boll  Group. — This  group  is  marked  by  the  size  of  its  bolls.  When 
seventy  or  less  will  yield  a  pound  of  seed  cotton,  the  bolls  are  considered 
large  and  classed  as  a  big-boll  variety.  Some  varieties  have  long  limbs; 
others  have  short  ones,  giving  the  plant  a  semi-cluster  appearance.  As  a 
general  rule,  all  big-boll  varieties  have  rank  stalks,  large,  heavy  foliage  and 
mature  their  fruit  late. 


194 SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Some  of  the  widely  grown  big-boll  varieties  are  Triumph,  Cleveland, 
Truitt,  Russell,  etc.  Triumph  originated  in  Texas  and  is  grown  extensively 
there.  It  shows  considerable  storm  resistance,  has  big  bolls,  is  easy  to 
pick  and  yields  well  under  boll-weevil  conditions.  Cleveland  has  medium 
size  bolls  and  is  medium  early,  but  it  lacks  storm  resistance.  Russell  is 
late  in  maturing,  has  many  large  green  seed  and  turns  out  a  low  percentage 
of  lint. 

Cook  Improved  is  a  leading  variety  whose  bolls  are  scarcely  large 
enough  to  belong  to  the  big-boll  group.  The  type  of  plant  is  variable. 
This  variety  yields  a  high  percentage  of  lint,  is  early  and  easily  picked  and 
has  stood  at  the  top  in  yield  of  seed  cotton  in  many  experiments.  However, ' 
it  has  two  faults — a  tendency  to  boll-rot  (Anthracnose) ,  and  a  lack  of  storm 
resistance. 

Long-Staple  Upland  Group. — The  chief  characteristic  of  this  group  is 
the  length  of  its  fiber,  which  measures  from  If  to  1J  inches  long.  Most 
long  staple  varieties  are  late  and,  therefore,  are  not  suited  for  that  part  of 
the  country  infested  with  boll-weevils.  The  percentage  of  lint  is  lower 
than  the  other  upland  varieties,  but  it  commands  a  premium  of  three  or 
four  cents  a  pound.  Some  of  the  better  known  long-staple  varieties  are 
Webber,  Griffin  and  Allen  Long-Staple. 

Desired  Qualities  of  a  Variety. — By  careful  selection,  the  type  of  plant 
or  yield  of  seed  cotton  of  any  common  variety  may  be  greatly  improved  in  a 
few  years. 

Some  of  the  desirable  qualities  of  a  variety  are  : 

(1)  Large  yield  of  lint. 

(2)  Medium  to  large  size  bolls  that  are  easy  to  pick. 

(3)  Plants  that  are  true  to  type  and  healthy. 

(4)  Medium  earliness  with  some  storm  resistance. 

Selection. — Field  selection  is  the  one  method  most  frequently  employed 
to  improve  a  variety  of  cotton.  It  consists  in  sending  a  picker,  who  is 
familiar  with  the  points  to  be  improved,  ahead  of  the  other  pickers  to  select 
the  best  plants  and  to  pick  the  well-matured  bolls  on  them.  In  this  way  a 
few  hundred  pounds  of  well-selected  seed  cotton  is  gathered  and  then 
carefully  ginned.  The  next  year  the  selected  seeds  are  planted  in  a  well-, 
prepared  and  fertilized  field  away  from  the  other  varieties  for  a  seed  patch. 
From  the  seed  patch  selection  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  year  before 
in  the  field.  By  repeating  this  operation  for  several  years  a  variety  may 
be  greatly  improved.  However,  no  variety  will  continue  pure  if  the  seeds 
are  handled  at  the  public  gins  in  the  usual  careless  way. 

Soils  Adapted  to  Cotton. — Cotton  is  grown  on  all  types  of  soil  from  the 
light  sandy  to  the  heavy  clays,  from  the  badly  eroded  hills  to  the  rich 
alluvial  bottoms.  However,  in  this  wide  range  of  soils  are  planted  many 
acres  that  would  yield  a  better  income  if  they  were  planted  in  some  other 
crop.  It  is  the  low  yield  of  the  poorly  adapted  acres  that  makes  cotton  an 
unprofitable  crop  on  so  many  farms. 


COTTON    PRODUCTION 


195 


The  type  of  soil  influences  the  earliness  of  the  cotton  plants.  As  a 
general  rule,  cotton  grown  on  light,  sandy  soil  makes  a  rapid  growth  and 
matures  the  fruit  early — a  decided  advantage  where  boll-weevils  exist; 
while  that  on  heavy  clay  soil  may  grow  until  frost  stops  it,  if  the  season  is 
favorable.  Light  soils  are  not  naturally  productive,  but  by  the  use  of  500 
to  1000  pounds  of  complete  commercial  fertilizer  per  acre,  the  yield  is 
increased  from  one-third  of  a  bale  to  one  or  two  bales  an  acre. 

Special  Types  of  Soil. — Of  the  different  types  of  soil,  the  heavier 
members  of  the  Orangeburg  series  are  the  best  adapted  to  cotton  culture. 


COTTON  GROWN  BY  SINGLE  STALK  METHOD.1 

They  are  marked  by  a  reddish-brown  to  gray  color  and  open  structure  soil 
with  a  friable,  sandy-clay  subsoil. 

The  Greenville  series  is  very  much  like  the  Orangeburg  in  its  adapta- 
tion to  cotton. 

The  Norfolk  soils  are  not  so  productive;  but  when  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  humus  and  a  liberal  supply  of  commercial  fertilizer,  they  will 
produce  a  heavy  early  crop  of  cotton. 

The  Houston  series  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Victorian  west, 
with  good  cultivation  and  proper  seasons,  produce  above  an  average  crop. 
However,  the  cotton  plants  often  suffer  from  rust. 

In  the  Piedmont  regions  are  located  the  Cecil  soils.  Where  there  is 
not  a  deficiency  of  humus,  these  soils  are  productive,  but  the  plant  grows 

i  From  P.  I.  Bulletin  279.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


196  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

slowly  in  the  spring  and  late   in  the    fall — a    condition   favorable   to 
boll-weevils. 

Along  the  rivers  and  smaller  streams  are  strips  of  alluvial  land  called 
bottoms.  They  are  usually  fertile,  well  watered  and  produce  a  rank  growth 
of  plants  that  do  not  make  fruit  in  proportion  to  their  size.  On  such  land, 
hay  or  corn  is  a  more  profitable  crop. 

FERTILIZER  AND  CULTIVATION 

Plant  Food  Removed  by  Cotton. — There  is  probably  no  cultivated 
crop  that  draws  so  lightly  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil  as  cotton.  The 
average  crop  per  acre  in  the  United  States  is  slightly  less  than  600  pounds 
seed  cotton  yielding  200  pounds  lint.  This  amount  of  lint  removes  from 
the  land  only. 42  pound  nitrogen,  .15  pound  phosphoric  acid  and  1.32  pounds 
potash.  When  both  seed  and  lint  are  removed,  the  loss  is  13  pounds  nitro- 
gen, 4.74  pounds  phosphoric  acid  and  5.70  pounds  potash.  The  roots, 
stems,  leaves  and  burs  contain  about  as  much  nitrogen  and  phcsphoric 
acid,  and  about  three  times  as  much  potash,  as  the  seed  ccttcn.  These 
parts  of  the  plants  are  seldom  removed  from  the  field. 

Need  of  Humus. — In  the  cotton  belt  the  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil 
is  small.  The  warm,  moist  conditions  that  prevail  during  a  large  part  of 
the  year  favor  rapid  nitrification;  and  the  heavy  winter  and  spring  rains 
rapidly  leach  out  the  soluble  plant-food.  As  a  general  practice,  cotton 
follows  cotton  year  after  year  and  receives  clean  cultivation  and  furnishes 
little  organic  matter  to  replenish  the  humus.  .There  is  needed  en  every 
farm  some  system  of  crop  rotation  in  which  cne  crop  is  plowed  under  to 
renew  the  humus. 

Need  of  Nitrogen. — The  small  size  of  the  cotton  plants  over  large 
areas  is  evidence  of  the  deficiency  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  In  many  fields 
the  plants  are  large  enough  to  make  only  two  or  three  bolls.  To  make  a 
profitable  crop  they  should  be  two  or  three  feet  high,  full  of  fruit  and  have 
a  rich  black  color  during  the  growing  season.  The  only  lands  that  do  not 
need  a  supply  of  nitrogen  are  the  rich  bottoms  or  those  that  have  received 
a  heavy  crop  of  clover  or  some  other  legume  for  soil  improvement. 

The  chief  sources  of  nitrogen  in  commercial  fertilizer  are  cottonseed 
meal,  which  also  furnishes  some  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  nitrate  of 
soda,  tankage  and  calcium  cyanamid.  If  quick  results  are  desired,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  side  application  to  a  growing  crop,  some  soluble  form  like 
nitrate  of  soda  is  used. 

Need  of  Phosphoric  Acid. — The  need  of  phosphoric  acid  is  almost 
universal.  Most  fertilizer  experiments  show  an  increased  yield  whenever  it 
is  used.  The  only  soils  that  do  not  show  an  increased  yield  from  its  use 
are  the  rich  alluvial  lands  and  Houston  and  Victoria  clays.  A  liberal 
application  of  acid  phosphate  on  heavy  clay  soil  often  hastens  the  maturing 
of  a  crop  of  bolls  that  would  not  ripen  and  open  before  frost.  When  a 
crop  of  200  or  300  pounds  lint  cotton  is  expected,  it  is  usual  to 


COTTON    PRODUCTION  197 

apply  150  or  200  pounds  acid  phosphate  either  before  planting  or  as 
a  side  dressing. 

Need  of  Potash. — Loose,  sandy  soils  and  the  Houston  clays  show  an 
increased  yield  when  kainit  or  some  other  potash  fertilizer  is  used;  but 
most  red  clay  and  some  silty  soils  do  not  seem  to  need  artificial  potash  to 
make  an  average  crop.  The  red  clay  soils,  as  a  rule,  have  a  great  deal  of 
potash,  but  it  is  slowly  available. 

When  used  alone,  an  excess  of  potash  tends  to  delay  the  maturity  of 
the  fruit.  When  used  in  connection  with  other  materials  making  a  complete 
fertilizer,  the  tendency  to  lateness  is  obviated.  Some  soils  subject  to  cotton 
rust  are  greatly  improved  by  the  use  of  150  to  200  pounds  kainit  or  35  to 
50  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre. 

Commercial  Fertilizers  Profitable. — Commercial  fertilizers  usually 
pay  a  good  profit,  when  the  season  is  favorable  and  they  are  intelligently 
used.  Lands  that  formerly  produced  a  half  a  bale  of  cotton,  now  by  the 
use  of  $8  or  $10  worth  of  high-grade  commercial  fertilizer  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  land,  produce  a  bale  per  acre  without  much  additional  expense. 
There  is  a  strong  tendency  all  over  the  cotton  belt  to  increase  the  amount 
of  fertilizer  and  especially  the  amount  of  nitrogen.  Many  farmers  are 
using  400  to  600  pounds  of  a  formula  that  analyzes  5  per  cent  phosphoric 
acid,  4  per  cent  ammonia  and  3  per  cent  potash  for  sandy  soils  and  the 
same  with  less  potash  for  the  clay  soils. 

Three-Year  Rotation  Suggested. — The  long  practice  of  planting 
cotton  continuously  on  the  same  land  has  destroyed  nearly  all  the  humus 
hi  the  soil.  To  increase  the  humus  and  to  maintain  soil  fertility  in  the 
cotton  states,  the  following  three-year  rotation  is  recommended: 

First  year. — Cotton,  following  in  the  fall  with  crimson  clover  or  some 
other  winter  cover  crop. 

Second  year. — Corn  with  cowpeas  sowed  or  drilled  between  the  rows 
at  the  last  cultivation. 

Third  year. — Oats  or  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas  sowed  broadcast 
for  hay  or  soil  improvement. 

Preparation  of  Land. — The  only  preparation  a  great  deal  of  the  cotton 
land  receives  before  planting  is  one  plowing,  which  consists  in  throwing 
up  beds  or  ridges  on  which  the  seed  is  planted.  Many  farmers  are  begin- 
ning to  recognize  the  need  of  better  preparation  and  are  plowing  the  land 
flat  and  then  bedding  it  before  planting. 

Much  of  the  plowing  is  done  with  a  one-horse  plow  to  a  depth  of  four 
or  five  inches.  However,  the  lands  that  are  producing  a  bale  of  cotton 
to  the  acre  are  plowed  with  a  team  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches.  Sub- 
soiling,  as  a  special  operation,  is  not  recommended,  but  deeper  plowing  is 
proving  beneficial  in  many  parts  of  the  cotton  belt. 

Time  of  Plowing. — Late  fall  or  winter  plowing  is  commendable  for 
heavy  soils  and  those  that  have  a  great  deal  of  litter  on  them,  if  such  lands 
are  not  subject  to  severe  erosion.  Light,  sandy  soils  are  liable  to  winter 


198  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

leaching  if  plowed  early.  All  fall-plowed  lands,  especially  if  they  are 
sandy  or  subject  to  erosion,  should  have  some  winter  cover  crop  like  crimson 
clover  or  grain  so  that  their  roots  may  take  up  the  plant  food  as  fast  as  it 
becomes  available  and  prevent  washing  of  the  surface.  In  the  early  spring 
the  cover  crop  is  plowed  under  in  the  final  preparation  for  planting.  In  a 
large  measure  the  date  of  the  first  plowing  should  be  governed  by  the  labor 
on  hand,  the  amount  of  litter  and  stiffness  of  soil. 

Seed-Bed. — Land  that  was  plowed  broadcast  in  the  winter  or  early 
spring  is  marked  off  in  rows  by  a  furrow  that  receives  the  fertilizer.  Where 
cotton  follows  cotton  without  any  previous  plowing,  as  is  too  often  the 
practice  in  a  large  part  of  the  cotton  belt,  a  furrow  with  a  middle-buster 
is  run  in  the  row  of  old  stalks  or  in  the  middle  of  the  previous  rows,  and  the 


TURNING  UNDER  CRIMSON  CLOVER  FOR  COTTON. 

fertilizer  is  distributed  in  this  open  furrow  with  a  one-horse  machine  that 
has  a  shovel-plow  to  mix  soil  and  fertilizer  together.  By  throwing  over 
the  fertilizer  four  or  five  furrows  with  a  turning  plow,  a  bed  or  ridge  is 
formed  four  or  five  inches  high  and  two  feet  wide.  When  no  fertilizer  is 
used,  many  farmers  omit  even  the  center  furrow  and  "list"  or  bed  without 
running  the  center  furrow  as  a  preparation  for  the  row. 

Planting. — Just  before  planting  a  drag  or  spring-tooth  harrow  is 
drawn  across  the  beds  or  lengthwise  to  smooth  them  down  and  freshen  the 
surface.  On  well-drained  land  some  farmers  are  discarding  the  high  beds 
and  planting  on  a  level  surface.  In  the  western"  part  of  the  cotton  belt, 
where  the  rainfall  is  below  twenty-two  inches,  much  planting  is  done  in  a 
water-furrow  made  with  a  two-horse  lister. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  cotton  belt,  planting  begins  in  March  and  is 
usually  completed  in  the  northern  part  of  the  cotton  belt  by  the  end  of  May. 


COTTON    PRODUCTION  199 

Most  of  the  crop  is  planted  in  April.     Where  boll  weevils  are  present, 
planting  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  danger  from  frost  is  past. 

The  seeds  are  sown  or  dropped  in  a  shallow  furrow  and  covered  one  or 
two  inches  deep  in  soil.  If  the  soil  is  dry  the  seed  should  be  planted  deeper 
and  the  soil  slightly  packed  on  the  seed.  When  the  seed  is  drilled,  one-half 
to  one  bushel  of  seed  is  required  to  plant  an  acre;  when  planted  in  hills, 
one  or  two  pecks  are  required.  If  the  land  is  rough,  the  planting  should  be 
thicker  to  secure  a  stand  without  replanting. 

Tillage. — Prompt  germination  is  desirable.  If  a  rain  packs  the  surface 
or  a  crust  forms  before  the  seed  comes  up,  the  surface  should  be  stirred  with 
a  spike-tooth  harrow  or  weeder  to  help  the  young  plants  to  break  through 
the  crust.  The  harrow  or  weeder  may  be  cLrawn  across  the  rows  after  the 
plants  come  up  to  destroy  small  weeds  and  to  cultivate  the  cotton  plants. 
When  the  cotton  begins  to  show  its  true  leaves,  it  should  be  cultivated  with 
a  scrape  or  turner,  which  leaves  the  plants  on  a  narrow  ridge.  The  cotton 
is  then  thinned  to  one  plant  in  a  hill  about  one  foot  apart  on  poor  land  and 
about  one  and  one-half  to  two  feet  apart  on  fertile  land.  Soon  after 
thinning  a  little  soil  should  be  pushed  up  round  the  young  plants.  This 
may  be  done  with  a  small  scrape,  sweep  or  spring-tooth  cultivator. 

Flat,  shallow,  frequent  cultivation  should  be  given  the  growing  crop 
until  about  the  first^of  August,  when  it  may  cease,  unless  the  crop  is  very 
late. 

HARVESTING  AND   MARKETING 

Picking. — Cotton  is  picked  by  hand.  A  picker  hangs  a  bag  over  his 
shoulder,  picks  the  cotton  out  of  the  open  bolls  and  drops  it  in  his  bag. 
He  picks  150  to  200  pounds  seed  cotton  a  day  and  receives  from  forty  to 
seventy-five  cents  per  hundred  pounds. 

Picking  begins  in  the  latter  part  of  August  or  early  in  September  and 
ends  about  the  first  of  December.  When  labor  is  scarce,  the  time  of  harvest 
may  be  prolonged'  until  midwinter.  Cotton  should  be  picked  out  as  fast 
as  it  opens  to  prevent  damage  from  storms  or  rotting  of  fiber. 

Picking  is  an  expensive  operation  because  it  has  to  be  done  by  hand. 
However,  it  does  not  require  much  skill  and  much  of  it  is  done  by  the  cheap- 
est of  labor — women  and  children.  Many  cotton  picking  machines  have 
been  invented,  but  none  of  them  have  proven  successful.  They  damage  the 
plant  and  gather  much  trash  with  the  cotton. 

Cotton  should  not  be  picked  when  it  is  wet,  nor  should  locks  fallen 
on  the  ground  and  badly  stained  be  picked  up  and  mixed  with  the  white 
cotton.  The  damaged  cotton  should  be  placed  in  a  separate  bale.  If 
cotton  is  picked  when  it  is  slightly  wet,  it  should  be  dried  before  ginning, 
as  damp  cotton  cannot  be  ginned  without  injury  to  the  fiber. 

Ginning. — When  1200  or  1500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  have  been  picked, 
it  is  usually  hauled  to  a  public  ginnery.  A  suction  pipe  draws  the  seed 
cotton  into  a  screen  where  a  great  deal  of  the  dirt  and  trash  is  blown  out, 
and  then  drops  it  into  a  feeder.  The  feeder  picks  up  locks  or  small  wads 

22 


200 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


of  cotton  and  drops  them  into  the  gin-breast,  where  they  form  a  revolving 
roll  of  seed  cotton.  On  the  under  side  of  this  roll  are  many  small  circular 
saws  rapidly  revolving  in  opposite  directions  and  cutting  the  lint  off  the 
seed.  A  rapidly  revolving  brush  takes  the  lint  off  the  saws  and  drives  it 
into  a  condenser.  The  lint  is  then  dropped  into  a  large  box  and  packed 
into  a  bale  of  cotton,  which  is  now  ready  for  the  market  or  warehouse. 

Cotton  Seed. — The  seed  is  usually  sold  to  a  cottonseed-oil  mill.  The 
short  lint  or  fuzz  is  cut  off  the  seed  and  is  called  "linters."  The  seed  is 
then  run  through  a  mill  that  takes  off  the  hulls,  which  are  used  for  cattle 
food;  the  kernels,  or  meats  as  they  are  called,  are  ground  and  cocked,  after 


A  FIELD  OF  COTTON. 

which  they  are  put  in  a  powerful  press  that  removes  the  crude  oil  and  leaves 
a  hard  yellow  cake. 

The  crude  oil  is  refined  and  from  it  are  obtained:  (1)  " summer  white 
oil,"  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  compound  of  lard;  (2)  stearin, 
used  in  making  solid  oils,  etc.;  and  (3)  a  residue  that  is  used  in  making 
soap.  On  the  dry  western  stock  ranches,  a  great  deal  of  the  yellow  cake  is 
fed  to  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  winter;  the  cake  is  ground,  forming  what  is 
known  as  cottonseed  meal,  and  is  used  as  stock  feed  and  commercial 
fertilizer.  Recent  experiments  show  that  specially  prepared  meal  mixed 
with  wheat  flour  makes  an  excellent  nutritious  bread. 

Not  many  decades  ago,  cottonseed  was  a  waste  product  on  the  farm, 
but  now  the  commercial  value  of  the  seed  equals  one-seventh  the  value  of 
the  lint. 


COTTON    PRODUCTION  201 

On  an  average  1500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  make  a  500-pound  bale  and 
1000  pounds  of  seed.  When  the  seed  passes  through  an  oil -mill,  it  pro- 
duces about  150  pounds  crude  oil,  337  pounds  meal,  500  pounds  hulls  and 
13  pounds  linters. 

Storing. — After  the  cotton  is  ginned,  the  bales  may  be  marketed  at 
once,  or  stored  on  the  farm  or  in  a  public  warehouse.  The  bales  of  cotton 
are  often  left  lying  about  the  ginhouse  or  homes,  exposed  to  the  weather. 
As  a  result  of  the  weather,  their  covering  becomes  badly  damaged  and  the 
lint  tinged  with  a  bluish  color,  and  the  buyer  "docks"  them  to  cover  the 
damage. 

Bales  of  cotton  should  be  stored  under  a  shed  on  timber  to  prevent 
their  touching  the  damp  ground  and  absorbing  moisture.  In  many  markets 
are  large  public  warehouses  where  cotton  can  be  weighed,  stored  and 
insured  at  a  small  cost  per  bale. 

Before  selling  a  bale,  a  sample  of  lint  is  drawn  from  each  covered  side 
and  placed  together  as  a  sample  of  the  bale.  The  buyer  judges  its  grade 
and  makes  a  bid.  The  price  is  based  on  the  grade  and  the  demand  for  that 
grade  of  cotton  in  the  markets.  Most  farmers  do  not  know  the  grade  of 
their  cotton,  as  it  takes  expert  knowledge  to  classify  cotton  correctly. 
They  accept  the  highest  price  bid  on  the  cotton  as  the  top  of  the  market 
for  that  grade.  Where  a  large  number  of  bales  are  offered  in  the  market, 
often  an  expert  grader  is  employed  to  classify  the  cotton,  which  method 
usually  gives  satisfaction  to  seller  and  buyer. 

When  a  foreign  or  domestic  mill  wishes  a  quantity  of  a  given  grade,  an 
order  is  placed  with  an  agent,  and  this  agent  goes  to  the  warehouses  or 
dealers  and  buys  the  grades  desired.  If  the  bales  have  to  be  shipped  far, 
they  are  sent  to  the  compress,  where  the  size  is  greatly  reduced  by  a 
powerful  press  and  thereby  the  cost  of  transportation  is  reduced. 

Grades  of  Cotton. — The  grades  of  cotton  depend  mainly  on  (1)  colcr 
of  fiber,  (2)  amount  of  trash,  and  (3)  quality  of  ginning.  A  high  grade 
requires  that  the  fiber  be  wiiite,  with  a  slightly  creamy  tinge,  strong  and 
free  from  trash  or  dirt.  When  the  cotton  shows  a  yellowish  or  bluish  tinge, 
the  fiber  usually  is  not  strong;  immaturity  or  exposure  to  the  weather  are 
the  usual  causes  for  this  condition.  To  get  a  high  grade,  the  farmer  should 
pick  the  cotton  from  only  the  fully  opened  and  matured  bolls,  and  pick 
it  free  from  trash  and  dirt. 

There  are  seven  primary  grades  in  the  commercial  classification  of  lint 
cotton.  They  are  named  in  the  order  of  value:  (1)  "fair,"  (2)  "middling 
fair,"  (3)  "good  middling,"  (4)  "middling,"  (5)  "low  middling,"  (6) 
"good  ordinary,"  (7)  "ordinary."  The  half  grades,  which  lie  between  the 
primary  grades  are  named  by  prefixing  the  word  "strict"  to  the  name  of 
the  next  lower  grade,  as  "strict  good  middling/'  which  is  a  half  grade  better 
than  "good  middling."  The  telegraphic  dispatches  from  the  cotton 
exchanges  quote  prices  on  "middling,"  and  the  prices  of  better  and  lower 
grades  are  calculated  on  the  basis  of  "middling." 


202  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

The  larger  part  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  falls  under  the 
following  grades:  strict  good  middling,  good  middling,  strict  middling 
and  middling.  Storms  and  early  frost  increase  the  quantity  in  the  lower 


The  diseases  and  insect  enemies  of  cotton  are  discussed  in  Part  II 
of  this  book, 

REFERENCES 

"From  Cotton  Field  to  Cotton  Mill."     Thompson. 

"Hemp."     Boyce. 

"Cotton."     Burkett  and  Poe. 

"Southern  Field  Corps."     Duggar. 

Alabama  Tuskegee  Station  Bulletin  26.     "A  New  and  Prolific  Variety  of  Cotton." 

Alabama  Tuskegee  Station  Circular  23.     "  Boll  Weevil  Control  by  Cotton  Stalk  De- 
struction." 

Alabama  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  189.     "Wilt  Resistant  Varieties  of  Cotton." 

Georgia  Station  Bulletin  113.     "Variety  Work  with  Corn  and  Cotton." 

Mississippi  Station  Bulletin  169.     "  Cotton  Experiments  1914." 

Mississippi  Station  Bulletin  173.     "  Cotton  Experiments." 

North  Carolina  Station  Bulletin  231.     "  Report  on  Variety  Tests  of  Cotton  for  1914." 

South  Carolina  Station  Bulletin  185.     "  Cotton — Varieties  and  Limiting  Factor  Tests." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture; 

Bulletin    38.     "Egyptian  Cotton  Seed  Selection." 

Bulletin  62.  "  Tests  of  the  Waste,  Tensil  Strength  end  Bleaching  Qualities  of 
the  Different  Grades  of  Cotton  as  Standardized  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment." 

Bulletin  121.     "  Spinning  Tests  of  Up-land  Long-staple  Cottons." 
Bulletin  146.     "Economic  Conditions  in  the  Sea  Island  Cotton  Industry." 
Bulletin  216.     "Cotton  Warehouses:  Storage  Facilities  Now  Available  in  the 

South." 

Bulletin  279.     "  Single  Stalk  Cotton  Culture  at  San  Antonio." 
Bulletin  288.     "  Custom  Ginning  as  a  Factor  in  Cotton-seed  Deterioration." 
Bulletin  311.     "  The  Handling  and  Marketing  of  the  Arizona  Egyptian  Cotton 

of  the  Salt  River  Valley." 
Bulletin  332.     "  Community  Production  of  Egyptian  Cotton  in  the  United 

States." 

Bulletin  382.     "  Cotton  Boll-Weevil  Control." 
Bulletin  375.     "  Disadvantages  of  Selling  Cotton  in  the  Seed." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry: 

Circular    26.     "Egyptian  Cotton  in  Southwestern  U.  S." 
Circular    57.     "Cultivation  of  Hemp  in  U.  S." 
Circular  123.     "  Production  of  Long-Staple  Cotton." 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 
302.     "Sea  Island  Cotton." 

314.     "  Method  of  Breeding  Early  Cotton  to  Escape  Boll- Weevil." 
326.     "Building  up  a  Run-Down  Cotton  Plantation  " 
364.     "  A  Profitable  Cotton  Farm." 
501.     " Cotton  Improvement  Under  Weevil  Conditions." 
577.     "  Growing  Egyptian  Cotton  in  the  Salt  River  Valley,  Arizona." 
591.     " The  Classification  and  Grading  of  Cotton." 
601.     "A  New  System  of  Cotton  Culture  and  Its  Application." 


CHAPTER  17 
TOBACCO 

BY  GEORGE  T.  McNEss 
Tobacco  Expert,  Texas  Experiment  Station 

Types  and  Their  Commercial  Uses. — The  commercial  tobaccos  of 
North  America  are  divided  into  three  principal  types,  known  as  cigar  leaf, 
manufacturing  and  export.  These  types  are  again  subdivided  according 
to  their  market  grades  and  commercial  use.  The  cigar  type  consists  of 
three  grades:  wrapper,  binder  and  filler  leaf.  The  wrapper  is  a  fine- 
textured  leaf  used  for  covering  the  outside  of  the  cigar,  and  must  have 
good  appearance,  length  and  width,  be  uniform  in  color  and  have  fine 
veins.  Cigar  wrapper  leaf  is  the  highest  priced  tobacco  produced  hi  North 
America.  The  binder  is  that  part  of  a  cigar  which  holds  the  filler  leaf  or 
bunch  together.  This  grade  of  tobacco  must  have  fair  size  and  possess 
good  burning  qualities.  It  is  generally  selected  from  the  poorer  grades  of 
wrapper  leaf.  The  filler  is  that  part  which  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  cigar, 
and  varies  in  quality  according  to  the  kind  of  tobacco  used  for  this  purpose. 
Filler  tobacco  should  possess  good  aroma,  taste  and  perfect  combustion. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  tobaccos  used  for  cigar  purposes,  each 
having  distinctive  characteristics  and  grown  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  The  kind  of  seed  used,  the  influence  of  climate,  soil  conditions 
and  methods  of  culture  and  curing  determine  the  ultimate  use  of  the  leaf. 

The  tobaccos  used  in  the  manufacturing  of  cigars  are:  the  Havana 
Seed,  Broadleaf,  Cuban  Seed,  Florida  Sumatra,  Georgia  Sumatra,  Texas 
Hybrid,  Wisconsin  Seed,  Pennsylvania  Seed,  Zimmer  Spanish,  Gebhardt 
and  Little  Dutch.  Several  types  of  tobacco  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  smoking  and  chewing  tobaccos,  the  principal  type  used  in  this  country 
being  the  White  Burley,  which  is  grown  in  Kentucky  and  parts  of  Ohio. 
Cigarette  tobacco  is  manufactured  from  the  bright  flue-cured  leaf  of  the 
Carolinas  and  southern  Virginia.  About  60  per  cent  of  the  crop  is  used  for 
home  consumption.  The  heavy  or  fire-cured  tobaccos  are  mostly  exported 
to  Europe,  although  some  of  the  finer  grades  are  used  for  plug  wrappers. 

Principal  Tobacco  Districts. — The  finest  cigar  tobaccos  are  grown  in 
the  New  England  states  of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts,  and  in  the 
South  in  Florida,  Georgia  and  Texas.  These  states  produce  the  fine  grade 
cigar  wrapper  leaf.  In  the  New  England  states  it  is  grown  under  cloth 
shades,  while  in  the  Southern  states  a  slat  shade  is  used.  These  shade- 
grown  tobaccos  rival  the  fine  tobaccos  imported  from  Sumatra  and  Cuba 
both  in  quality  of  burn  and  taste  and  in  wrapping  capacity.  The  binder 

(203) 


204 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


tobaccos  are  produced  in  the  states  of  Connecticut  and  Wisconsin;  while 
filler  leaf  of  the  various  types  comes  from  the  Miami  Valley  of  Ohio, 
and  from  Pennsylvania,  Florida,  Texas,  Georgia  and  Connecticut. 

The  manufacturing  tobaccos,  air,  sun,  flue  and  fire-cured,  are  grown  in 
Kentucky,  Ohio,  Virginia,  Tennessee  and  North  and  South  Carolina. 
Maryland  also  produces  a  fine  grade  of  pipe  tobacco,  but  most  of  this 
tobacco  is  exported  to  England  and  France.  Nearly  all  of  the  fire-cured 


FIELD  OF  VIRGINIA  HEAVY  TOBACCO. 

tobaccos  produced  in  the  above  states  are  exported  to  the  various  parts 
of  the  world. 

Tobacco  Soils. — It  might  be  well  to  mention  briefly  a  few  of  the  prin- 
cipal soils  upon  which  tobacco  is  grown.  The  heavy  tobaccos  of  Virginia 
are  grown  in  the  Piedmont  District  on  soil  known  as  the  Cecil  clay  or  Cecil 
clay  loam.  This  soil  is  a  heavy,  red  clay  soil  and  produces  a  heavy-bodied 
dark-colored  tobacco.  '  This  type  of  soil  is  also  found  in  the  tobacco  dis- 
tricts of  Tennessee  and  part  of  Kentucky.  The  soil  of  the  Carolinas  is 
a  very  light-gray,  sandy  soil  and  belongs  to  the  Norfolk  series  of  soils  as 
classified  by  the  U,  S.  Bureau  of  Soils.  This  soil  produces  a  light-colored, 
thin-textured  leaf  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cigarettes  and 
granulated  tobaccos.  The  soil  upon  which  the  burly  tobacco  is  grown  is 
also  a  light  soil,  as  is  also  the  tobacco  soil  of  Maryland.  The  tobacco  soil 


TOBACCO 


205 


of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  is  a  light,  gravelly  soil  belonging  to  the 
Hartford  series  of  soils,  and  when  well  fertilized  produces  a  fine  quality 
of  tobacco. 

The  principal  tobacco  soils  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states  are 
light  sand  to  sandy  loam,  underlaid  by  either  a  yellow  or  red  sandy  clay. 
These  soils  run  from  gray  to  red  in  color,  and  where  they  have  the  yellow 
clay  subsoil  they  belong  to  the  Norfolk  series,  while  the  red  clay  subsoil 
places  them  in  the  Orangeburg  series.  The  Orangeburg  soils  are  more 
productive  than  the  Norfolk  and  the  better  grades  of  cigar  leaf  are  produced 
upon  the  former  soil.  These  southern  soils  are  responsive  to  fertilization, 


FIELD  OF  CIGAR  LEAF  TOBACCO. 

and  as  high  as  one  ton  of  commercial  fertilizer  is  used  to  the  acre  by  the 
best  growers. 

The  soils  of  Ohio  are  of  limestone  formation,  and  produce  a  heavy- 
bodied  cigar  filler  leaf  having  good  aroma, but  on  account  of  the  lime  content 
are  apt  to  flake.  The  Pennsylvania  soils  are  a  little  heavy  for  the  produc- 
tion of  wrapper  leaf,  but  the  standard  cigar  filler  leaf  used  in  this  country 
is  produced  upon  these  soils.  The  soils  of  Texas  are  the  Orangeburg  and 
Norfolk,  which  produce  the  same  grade  of  tobacco  as  Florida  and  Georgia. 
They  are  found  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state.  For  additional 
information  on  soils,  see  Chapter  1  on  "Soil  Classification  and  Crop 
Adaptation." 

Preparation  and  Care  of  Seed-Bed. — The  preparation  of  the  seed-bed 
varies  in  the  different  tobacco  districts,  owing  to  some  extent  to  the  varied 
climatic  conditions,  financial  condition  of  the  grower  and  type  of  tobacco 
being  grown.  The  most  expensive  and  complete  seed-beds  are  to  be  found 


206 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


in  the  New  England  states,  while  less  pretentious  ones  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Carolinas.  The  object,  however,  is  the  same,  that  is,  to  produce  a 
supply  of  good,  healthy,  vigorous  plants;  for  a  failure  of  the  seed-bed  means 
a  failure  of  the  crop. 

In  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  the  young  plants  are  grown  under 
glass  in  steam-heated  beds,  and  the  tobacco  seed  is  sprouted  before  being 
sown  in  order  to  produce  plants  by  the  time  danger  of  frost  is  over.  It  is 
only  in  the  Northern  states  that  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  this  expense  and 
trouble.  In  most  of  the  heavy  tobacco-growing  districts,  as  well  as  in  the 


TOBACCO  PLANT-BED,  OR  TOBACCO  SEED-BED. 

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states,  the  open  seed-bed  is  used,  the  only  covering 
being  a  thin  cheesecloth  to  keep  out  the  cold  and  conserve  the  heat  and 
moisture  in  the  bed. 

In  locating  a  good  seed-bed  for  any  type  of  tobacco  the  prospective 
grower  should  select  a  piece  of  ground  near  to  water,  having  a  southern 
exposure  and  protected  on  the  north  either  by  buildings  or  timber.  The 
best  plan  is  to  select  a  piece  of  woodland  near  a  small  stream  having  the 
desired  exposure.  The  timber  should  be  cut  off  the  land  in  the  fall  of  the 
year,  split  into  desired  lengths  and  sizes  and  stacked  to  dry.  January  is  the 
best  time  to  burn  a  seed-bed,  excepting  in  the  Northern  states.  In  these 
states  this  form  of  bed  is  not  used.  The  first  operation  is  to  rake  from  the 
bed  all  leaves  and  trash,  then  lay  across  the  bed  skids  of  green  pine  poles, 
upon  which  the  cut  timber  with  a  good  supply  of  small  brush  is  placed. 
This  pile  of  wood  and  brush  should  extend  clear  across  the  bed,  but  not  over 


TOBACCO  207 


the  entire  length.  The  fire  should  then  be  started  and  let  burn  until  the 
soil  directly  under  the  fire  has  been  burnt  to  a  depth  of  three  inches.  It 
is  then  dragged  on  the  skids  and  another  section  of  the  bed  burnt.  This 
operation  is  repeated  until  the  entire  bed  is  burnt.  As  soon  as  the  ground 
has  cooled  off,  the  coals  should  be  raked  off  the  bed  and  the  fine  ashes  spaded 
or  plowed  under. 

The  bed  is  now  ready  for  the  frame  to  be  placed  around  it.  In  some 
states  logs  are  used  for  this  purpose,  but  one-inch  planks  twelve  inches 
wide  and  any  desired  length,  best  serve  the  purpose.  The  most  conve- 
nient size  to  make  a  seed-bed  is  six  feet  wide  and  fifty  feet  long,  which  will 
make  300  square  feet  of  bed.  In  building  the  frame  to  go  around  the  beds 
the  planks  should  be  set  upon  edge  and  where  the  ends  meet  they  are  nailed 
to  a  stake  which  has  previously  been  driven  in  the  ground  (see  preceding 
page) .  After  the  frame  is  complete  a  No.  9  wire  should  be  stretched  from 
the  center  of  one  end  of  the  frame  to  the  other,  supported  at  intervals  by 
stakes,  the  tops  of  which  are  about  two  inches  higher  than  the  top  of  the 
frame.  When  the  cloth  is  stretched  over  the  frame  this  will  cause  a  peak 
or  ridge  to  the  cloth  roof. 

Prior  to  stretching  the  cloth  over  the  frame,  fertilizer  should  be  applied 
to  the  bed.  Best  results  have  been  obtained  by  using  twenty-five  pounds 
of  cottonseed  meal  and  ten  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to  every  fifty  square 
yards  of  seed-bed.  This  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil,  and 
should  be  applied  several  days  before  the  tobacco  seed  is  sown.  This 
form  of  seed-bed  is  now  used  in  nearly  all  of  the  tobacco  districts  of  the 
United  States  with  the  exception  of  the  New  England  states,  where,  on 
account  of  their  severe  climatic  conditions  and  short  growing  season,  glass 
frames  and  steam  heat  are  used  in  order  to  obtain  early  seedlings. 

In  sowing  a  seed-bed  it  is  very  important  to  secure  a  uniform  stand  of 
seedlings  and  in  order  to  have  a  stocky  growth  they  must  not  stand  too 
thick  in  the  bed.  On  account  of  the  small  size  of  tobacco  seeds,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  mix  them  with  some  foreign  substance  in  order  to  facilitate  uniform 
distribution  in  the  bed.  The  best  material  to  use  for  this  purpose  is  fine- 
sifted  dry  ashes.  One  ounce  of  tobacco  seed  mixed  with  one  gallon  of 
sifted  wood-ashes  will  plant  three  hundred  square  feet  of  bed.  More  than 
this  amount  of  seed  sown  to  three  hundred  square  feet  of  bed  will  cause  the 
plants  to  grow  too  thick;  consequently,  they  will  not  have  that  desired 
stocky  growth.  The  seed  should  not  be  raked  in,  but  simply  pressed  into 
the  surface  of  the  soil  either  by  a  small  roller  or  by  a  board  placed  upon  the 
bed  and  pressure  applied.  As  soon  as  the  seeds  have  been  pressed  into 
the  soil  the  bed  should  be  watered  and  the  cloth  covering  placed  in 
position. 

If  the  seed-bed  has  been  well  burnt  and  otherwise  prepared  very  little 
attention  will  be  needed  except  the  daily  watering,  and  this  must  not  be 
neglected  if  a  good  germination  is  desired,  for  the  grower  must  remember 
that  the  seed  is  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  that  it  takes  moisture  and 


208  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

heat  to  cause  the  seed  to  germinate.  Tobacco  seed  germinates  in  from 
ten  to  fourteen  days  under  normal  conditions.  • 

In  the  Southern  states  it  may  be  necessary  to  weed  the  plant  beds,  and 
wherever  weeds  or  grass  appear  in  the  bed  they  should  immediately  be 
pulled  out.  From  six  to  seven  weeks  after  sowing  the  seed  the  young  plants 
will  be  ready  to  transplant  to  the  field.  The  cloth  cover  should  be  removed 
for  a  few  days  prior  to  transplanting  so  as  to  harden  the  plants,  and  the 
beds  should  be  well  watered  before  the  plants  are  pulled  in  order  to  lessen 
the  injury  to  the  roots.  Plants  should  be  taken  from  the  plant-bed  in  the 
early  morning  and  placed  in  a  shady  place  until  used. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Tobacco  requires  a  good  seed-bed,  therefore, 
the  preparation  of  the  soil  is  one  of  importance,  and  although  the  minor 
details  of  soil  preparation  may  differ  in  the  various  tobacco  districts,  the 
ultimate  object  should  be  the  same.  Fields  intended  for  tobacco  culture 
should  be  plowed  the  previous  fall  to  a  depth  of  at  least  ten  or  twelve  inches, 
and,  if  it  is  desirable,  as  in  some  localities, to  apply  stable  manure,this  should 
be  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  loads  to  the  acre,  broadcasted 
over  the  field  before  plowing.  Lime  has  been  found  beneficial  upon  some 
tobacco  soils  and  should  be  applied  after  the  land  is  plowed,  and  disked  in 
during  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed. 

The  spring  preparation  of  the  soil  depends  largely  upon  the  method 
to  be  used  in  transplanting  the  seedlings,  either  by  machinery  or  by  hand. 
In  most  of  the  Northern  states,  especially  where  cigar  leaf  tobacco  is  grown, 
machine  setting  is  practiced,  while  in  the  Central  Atlantic  and  Southern 
states  most  of  the  tobacco  is  transplanted  by  hand. 

In  the  North  where  machinery  is  used  the  fertilizer  is  applied  broadcast 
after  the  spring  plowing  and  harrowed  in  by  means  of  a  disk  harrow. 
Smoothing  harrows,  such  as  the  Acme  or  Meeker,  are  then  run  several 
times  over  the  fields,  pulverizing  the  soil  and  leaving  it  in  good  condition 
for  the  planter. 

In  the  Central  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coast  states  most  of  the  tobacco  is 
transplanted  by  hand  and  the  fields  require  entirely  different  treatment 
than  where  the  machine  is  used.  The  field  to  be  used  for  tobacco  culture 
is  bedded  up  during  February,  the  beds  varying  from  three  to  three  and 
one-half  feet  apart  for  cigar  tobaccos.  The  commercial  fertilizer  is  applied 
in  the  drill  and  mixed  with  the  soil  by  having  a  single-shovel  plow  furrow 
run  in  the  drill,  after  which  two  furrows  are  made  with  a  one-horse  turning 
plow  forming  a  list. 

The  field  is  left  in  this  condition  until  the  plants  are  large  enough  on 
the  plant-bed  to  transplant  to  the  field.  At  this  time  this  list  is  leveled 
off  either  by  a  small  harrow  or  with  a  log.  Where  the  land  has  been  listed 
for  some  time,  it  is  good  practice  to  re-list  and  then  log  off,  as  the  small 
plants  will  take  root  much  quicker  in  fresh-plowed  mellow  soil. 

Fertilizers. — Tobacco  responds  to  good  fertilization  and  feeds  heavily 
on  nitrogen  and  potash.  Larger  amounts  of  commercial  fertilizer  are  used 


TOBACCO  209 


in  the  production  of  cigar  leaf  tobacco  than  with  tobacco  used  for  other 
purposes.  The  principal  source  of  nitrogen  is  from  cottonseed  meal, 
although  where  the  heavy  tobaccos  are  grown,  castor  pumace  or  ground 
blood  is  used  to  some  extent.  Potash  is  needed  in  the  production  of  all 
tobaccos  in  order  to  improve  the  burning  qualities  of  the  leaf.  Only 
sulphate  or  carbonate  of  potash  should  be  used,  as  the  salt  contained  in  the 
muriate  of  potash  is  detrimental  to  the  burning  quality  of  the  leaf.  Phos- 
phoric acid  is  also  necessary  in  small  amounts. 

In  the  tobacco-growing  regions  of  Florida,  Georgia  and  Texas  a  vast 
amount  of  money  is  spent  each  season  for  commercial  fertilizers.  In 
addition  to  a  liberal  application  of  stable  manure,  as  high  as  2000  pounds 
of  cottonseed  meal,  400  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash  and  200  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  are  used  to  the  acre  in  the  production  of  cigar  wrapper  leaf. 
Like  amounts  are  used  in  the  New  England  states.  Smaller  amounts  are 
used  in  the  production  of  heavy  and  export  tobacco,  and  in  such  states  as 
Virginia  a  crop  rotation  in  which  clover  appears  as  one  of  the  crops  in  the 
rotation,  reduces  the  amount  of  commercial  fertilizer,  especially  that  which 
is  used  as  a  source  of  nitrogen. 

Transplanting  and  Cultivation. — When  the  seedlings  in  the  plant-bed 
have  reached  a  height  of  from  four  to  six  inche?,  they  are  ready  to  be 
transplanted  to  the  field.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  taking  the  seedling 
from  the  bed  that  the  roots  are  not  injured;  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
water  the  bed  well  before  pulling  up  the  plants.  Plants  should  be  taken 
from  the  bed  early  in  the  morning  and  placed  in  a  cool,  shady  place  until 
they  are  to  be  used.  If  pulled  during  a  rainy  season  there  is  no  use  in 
watering  the  bed  and  they  can  be  used  at  once.  Plants  should  be  pulled 
one  at  a  time  with  the  finger  and  the  thumb  taking  hold  of  the  plant  close 
to  the  ground.  They  should  be  shaken  off  or,  if  water  is  near,  the  soil 
washed  from  the  roots,  and  then  packed  with  the  roots  down  in  a  basket 
or  box. 

Where  a  machine  is  used  for  transplanting,  the  field  is  usually  left  flat, 
having  been  previously  harrowed  so  as  to  present  a  fresh  surface.  Two 
men  are  required  to  feed  the  machine  and  one  to  do  the  driving.  There 
are  several  makes  of  transplanters,  the  most  popular  being  the  Beemis  and 
the  Tiger.  These  machines  open  the  furrow,  set  the  plants  and  place 
any  amount  of  water  desired  around  the  roots.  Tobacco  transplanted  by 
means  of  these  machines  appears  to  recover  from  the  shock  of  being  trans- 
planted, and  grows  off  much  sooner  and  with  more  uniformity  than  when 
planted  by  hand.  Another  advantage  of  machine  transplanting  is  that  the 
transplanting  can  be  done  just  as  well,  if  not  better,  during  dry  weather 
as  during  wet,  or  when  the  soil  is  in  favorable  condition.  These  machines 
have  been  in  use  in  the  northern  tobacco  states  for  years,  and  they  are 
gradually  finding  favor  with  the  southern  grower.  The  cheap  negro 
labor  of  the  South  has  been  the  principal  cause  of  their  restricted  use, 
but  as  the  price  of  labor  has  risen  in  the  last  few  years,  tobacco  trans- 


210 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


planters  are  now  being  used  with  success  where  formerly  hand  setting 
was  practiced. 

When  hand  setting  of  tobacco  is  practiced,  the  field  is  bedded  instead 
of  flat,  the  beds  are  marked  off  the  distance  required  to  plant  the  seedlings, 

and  if  the  soil  is  at  all 
dry,  water  is  applied 
at  these  places.  The 
plants  are  then 
dropped  at  each  mark 
and  a  laborer  sets 
them  at  these  places 
with  a  dibble.  Trans- 
planting by  hand 
should  be  done  only 
when  the  soil  is  in  a 
good  moisture  con- 
dition, or  during 
cloudy  or  rainy 
weather.  The  dis- 
tance at  which  the 
plants  are  set  in  the 
rows  depends  entirely 
on  the  type  and  com- 
mercial use  of  the 
tobacco.  The  heavy 
tobaccos  of  Virginia 
and  Tennessee  and 
the  flue-cured  tobaccos 
of  the  Caroliiias  are 
usually  checked  at  a 
distance  of  thirty-six 
inches,  while  cigar  leaf 
tobaccos  are  set  in 
the  drill  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches, 
according  to  their 
type. 

Tobaccos    of   all 

types  require  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation.  No  weeds  or  grass 
should  ever  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  field.  Cultivation  usually 
begins  about  eight  days  after  transplanting,  when  the  young  plants 
should  be  hoed  and  given  a  reasonably  deep  plowing.  This  is  the 
only  time  that  a  deep  cultivation  should  be  given.  In  the  North,  riding  and 
walking  cultivators  are  used,  having  an  attachment  of  shallow  running 


A  PLANT  READY  TO  SET  IN  FIELD.* 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


TOBACCO  211 


plows,  while  in  the  Southern  states  single  stocks  with  sweeps  are  mostly 
used.  Cultivation  usually  ceases  when  the  plants  have  received  their 
final  topping.  As  soon  as  the  seed-head  appears  it  should  be  taken  out 
along  with  about  three  or  four  leaves  with  cigar  type  tobaccos,  while  the 
heavy  and  export  types  are  topped  down  to  eight  or  ten  remaining  leaves, 
according  to  the  growth  of  the  plant  and  the  style  of  leaf  desired.  The 
Maryland  and  Burley  tobaccos  have  more  leaves  left  on  ttte  plant  after 
topping,  but  not  as  many  as  the  cigar  types.  All  types  of  tobacco  will  send 
out  shoots  or  suckers  after  being  topped,  and  these  should  be  broken 
off,  so  that  all  the  strength  of  the  plant  will  go  into  the  leaves  on  the 
main  stalk. 

Tobacco  is  subject  to  insect  pests  from  the  time  it  germinates  in  the 
plant-bed  to  the  time  it  is  harvested.  The  flea  beetle  which  lives  on  the 
young  plants  in  the  bed  can  be  controlled  by  using  kerosene  and  wood  ashes. 
In  the  field  the  bud  worm,  horn  worm  and  grasshopper  destroy  the  leaves. 
These  can  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  Paris  green,  either  applied  dry  mixed 
with  cornmeal  or  ashes  for  the  bud  worm  and  in  a  solution  at  the  rate  of 
one  pound  of  Paris  green  to  100  gallons  of  water,  for  the  horn  worm.  More 
detailed  instructions  for  controlling  these  pests  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 
on  "  Insect  Pests." 

Methods  of  Harvesting. — Various  methods  are  used  in  the  different 
tobacco  districts  in  harvesting  tobacco.  In  the  heavy  and  export  districts 
the  entire  plant  is  cut.  The  stalk  is  first  split  down  the  middle  about  two- 
thirds  its  length ;  then  cut  off  close  to  the  ground.  The  plant  is  then  hung 
across  a  stick  about  four  feet  in  length  holding  from  six  to  eight  plants, 
according  to  their  size.  When  a  stick  is  filled  it  is  placed  upon  a  wagon 
and  taken  to  the  curing  barn.  In  the  Burley  and  Maryland  tobacco  dis- 
tricts the  plant  is  simply  cut  close  to  the  ground  and  speared  upon  the  stick, 
the  stalk  not  being  cut  as  in  the  former  method.  This  method  of  harvesting 
is  also  used  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin  and  to  some  extent  in  the 
New  England  states  with  the  binder  and  filler  grade  of  cigar  leaf  tobacco. 

For  the  cigar  wrapper  tobaccos  of  Florida,  Georgia,  Texas  and  the 
New  England  states,  the  leaves  are  picked  off  the  growing  plants  as  they 
ripen,  beginning  with  the  sand  or  bottom  leaves.  The  leaves  are  placed  in 
baskets  and  taken  to  the  curing  barn,  where,  by  means  of  a  needle,  they  are 
strung  upon  strings  attached  to  sticks,  each  string  holding  about  thirty- 
five  leaves.  The  ends  of  the  string  are  fastened  to  each  end  of  the  stick, 
which  is  then  hung  upon  the  tier  poles  in  the  barn  where  they  remain 
until  cured.  The  bright  flue-cured  tobaccos  of  North  and  South  Carolina, 
also  Virginia,  are  harvested  by  a  similar  method,  differing  in  that  the  leaves 
are  tied  upon  the  string  in  pairs  and  sometimes  in  triplets  instead  of  the 
individual  leaves  being  strung  upon  the  string  by  means  of  a  needle. 
Cigar  leaf  tobacco,  harvested  by  the  priming  or  single-leaf  method,  will 
cure  much  quicker  than  when  the  whole  plant  is  cut  and  will  produce 
tobacco  of  more  uniform  color  and  finer  texture;  besides,  there  will  be  less 


212 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


waste  of  the  bottom  leaves  and  every  leaf  can  be  harvested  at  the  desired 
stage  of  ripeness. 

Barn  Curing. — There  are  four  methods  of  barn  curing  practiced:  air 
curing,  fire  curing,  flue  curing  and  sun  curing.  All  cigar  leaf,  Burley  and 
Maryland  smoking  tobaccos  are  air  cured.  The  tobacco,  either  primed  or 
cut  on  the  stalk,  is  hung  upon  the  tier  poles  in  the  curing  barn  and  there 
allowed  to  cure  out  by  a  gradual  dying  of  the  leaf  tissues  and  evaporation 
of  moisture.  Favorable  curing  conditions  exist  when  the  tobacco  will 
come  and  go  "in  kase"  several  times  during  the  period  of  curing.  Barns  for 
air  curing  are  provided  with  ventilators  which  can  be  opened  or  closed 

according  to  the  climatic  con- 
ditions and  the  stage  of  the 
cure.  For  the  first  few  days 
the  barn  should  be  kept  closed 
until  the  tobacco  has  wilted 
and  taken  on  a  yellow  shade  of 
color;  then  the  ventilators 
should  be  opened  so  as  to  ad- 
mit a  free  circulation  of  air 
until  the  tobacco  assumes  the 
brown  color.  During  dry, 
windy  weather  the  ventilators 
should  be  kept  closed  during 
the  day  and  opened  at  night. 
The  heavy  and  export 
tobaccos  of  Virginia,  Tennessee 
and  Kentucky  are  fire  cured. 
As  soon  as  the  barn  has  been 
FIRE-CURING  BARN.  filled  with  green  tobacco,  small 

wood  fires  are  started  to  wilt 

the  leaf  until  the  yellow  color  appears;  then  the  amount  of  heat  is  grad- 
ually increased  until  the  leaf  turns  brown.  When  the  tobacco  reaches  this 
stage  the  heat  is  again  increased  to  cure  the  midrib  or  stem  of  the  leaf, 
after  which  the  fires  are  allowed  to  die  and  the  tobacco  cool  off.  During 
the  curing  process  the  heat  should  never  be  allowed  to  fall  until  the 
final  cure  is  obtained,  as  a  fall  of  temperature  during  the  curing  process 
will  injure  the  color  and  texture  of  the  tobacco.  Small  log 'barns  with 
tight  walls  are  used  for  fire  curing  without  any  ventilation  except  the 
door. 

The  bright  tobaccos  of  Virginia  and  North  and  South  Carolina  are 
cured  by  flues.  The  barns  used  in  this  process  are  similar  to  those  used  in 
the  open  fire  process,  except  that  the  fires  are  built  on  the  outside  of  the 
barn  in  brick  fireplaces,  having  a  metal  flue  running  around  the  inside  of 
the  barn  about  two  feet  from  the  bottom.  There  are  usually  two  fireplaces, 
the  flues  of  each  uniting  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  barn,  and  merging  into 


TOBACCO 


213 


a  single  return  flue  coming  out  at  the  same  end  of  the  barn  as  the  fireplaces. 
Some  barns  have  the  two  flues  independent  of  each  other,  in  which  case 
both  flues  return  to  the  front  end  of  the  barn. 

The  tobacco,  after  being  hung  in  the  barn,  is  first  given  a  low  heat  so 
as  to  wilt  the  leaf  and  produce  the  yellow  color.  The  temperature  is  then 
rapidly  increased  so  as  to  set  the  yellow  color  in  the  leaf  and  prevent  the 
leaves  turning  brown.  As  soon  as  the  color  is  set  the  temperature  is  again 
increased  to  cure  the  midrib,  when  the  temperature  is  allowed  to  fall  and 
the  tobacco  to  cool  off.  Three  days  and  nights  is  the  usual  time  taken  to 

cure  a  barn  of  tobacco  by  this      _  . , 

process. 

The  sun-curing  process  is 
similar  to  the  air  curing,  the 
difference  being  that  the  to- 
bacco is  allowed  to  wilt  on 
scaffolds  before  being  placed 
in  the  barn  and  when  climatic 
conditions  are  favorable  it  is 
also  sunned  bef  ore  being  placed 
in  the  barn.  This  process  gives 
the  tobacco  a  delicate  flavor 
when  smoked  in  the  pipe. 

Preparation  for  Market. 
— The  first  damp  season  after 
tobacco  is  cured  is  usually  the 
best  time  to  take  it  from  the 
tier  poles  and  prepare  it  for 
the  market,  especially  with 
cigar  leaf  tobacco.  At  this 

time  the  tobacco  is  soft  and  pliable,  and  can  be  handled  without  injury  to 
the  leaf.  The  only  grading  done  by  the  grower  in  preparing  cigar  leaf  for 
the  market  is  to  separate  the  leaves  into  three  groups,  namely,  sand  or 
bottom  leaves,  middle  leaves,  and  top  leaves.  Where  the  tobacco  has 
been  cured  on  the  stalk  the  leaves  are  stripped  off  and  tied  into  hands  con- 
taining about  forty  leaves.  Where  the  tobacco  has  been  primed,  or  leaves 
picked  off  the  stalk  in  the  field,  the  cured  leaves  are  simply  bunched  on 
the  string  and  the  string  wrapped  around  the  butt-end  of  the  leaves. 
The  tobacco  is  then  packed  in  boxes  and  hauled  to  the  packing  house  or 
kept  in  the  barn  until  a  buyer  comes. 

With  the  heavy,  export  and  bright  tobaccos,  the  grower  usually  grades 
the  tobacco  into  the  commercial  classes  as  sand  lugs,  lugs  and  wrappers,  the 
finer  classification  being  performed  by  the  buyer,  who  is  usually  a  rehandler 
of  tobacco. 

These  tobaccos  are  packed  in  hogsheads  and  remain  for  some  time  in 
the  warehouses  to  undergo  an  ageing  process  which  mellows  the  tobacco 


FLUE-CURING  BARN,  VIRGINIA. 


214  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

and  brings  out  its  best  qualities.  All  cigar  tobaccos  have  to  go  though  a 
fermentation  process,  after  which  they  are  graded  out  according  to  color, 
texture  and  size.  The  tobaccos  of  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania  and 
certain  grades  of  the  New  England  tobaccos  are  packed  in  boxes,  while  the 
wrapper  grades  of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  are  packed  in  mat 
bales  weighing  about  160  pounds.  The  cigar  leaf  tobaccos  of  the  southern 
tobacco  states  are  all  packed  in  bales,  either  the  Cuban  or  Sumatra  style. 

Methods  of  Selling. — All  cigar  tobaccos  are  sold  by  the  grower  in  their 
unfermented  condition  to  dealers  in  leaf  tobacco,  who  either  buy  the 
tobacco  from  the  curing  barn,  or  upon  delivery  by  the  grower  at  the  ware- 
house. In  some  cases  the  tobacco  is  grown  upon  contract  at  a  stipulated 
price  per  pound  for  the  various  grades.  All  transactions  are  upon  a  cash 
basis  upon  delivery  of  the  tobacco. 

The  heavy,  export,  manufacturing  and  bright  tobaccos  are  sold  at 
public  auction,  either  in  the  hogshead  or  as  loose  tobacco.  The  place 
of  sale  is  a  public  warehouse  and  all  transactions  are  cash  at  the  close  of 
each  auction.  The  sales  are  attended  by  buyers  not  only  of  this  country, 
but  of  foreign  governments  where  the  regi  system  (government  monopoly) 
exists;  such  countries  as  Spain,  Italy,  France  and  Japan  having  buyers 
attending  these  auctions. 

Danville,  Virginia,  is  the  largest  market  for  loose  tobacco,  especially 
the  bright  tobaccos;  while  Richmond,  Lynchburg  and  Petersburg,  Virginia, 
handle  mostly  dark,  fire-cured  tobaccos.  Public  auctions  are  held  at  various 
places  in  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio  and  the  Carolinas. 

REFERENCES 

"Tobacco  Leaf."     Killebrew  and  Myrick. 

"Tobacco:  History,  Culture  and  Varieties."     Billings. 

Kentucky  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  129.     "Cultivating,  Curing  and  Marketing  Tobacco." 

Kentucky  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  139.     "Tobacco  Improvement." 

Ohio  Expt.  Station  Circular  156.     "Disinfecting  Tobacco  Beds  from  Root  Rot  Fungus." 

Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  239.     "Breeding  Cigar  Filler." 

Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletins  A2,  A3,  A4,  A5,  A6,  A7.     "Tobacco  in  Canada." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  40.     "Mosaic  Disease  of  Tobacco." 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

343.     "Cultivation  of  Tobacco  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee." 

416.     "Production  of  Cigar  Leaf  Tobacco  in  Pennsylvania." 

523.     "Tobacco  Curing." 

571.    "Tobacco  Culture." 


CHAPTER    18 

WEEDS  AND  THEIR  ERADICATION 

Weeds  are  the  farmer's  most  active  and  persistent  enemy.  If  he  would 
keep  them  under  control,  he  must  wage  a  continual  warfare  against  them. 
Seldom  is  there  soil  so  poor  that  it  will  not  grow  weeds,  and  the  richer  the 
soil,  the  greater  the  weed  crop.  They  seem  to  have  been  equipped  by  nature 
to  hold  their  own  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  for  they  manage  to  thrive 
despite  heat  or  cold,  drought  or  flood. 

Some  may  ask:  Why  do  weeds  exist?  They  undoubtedly  have  a 
place  in  nature's  great  plan.  They  are  her  agents  in  restoring  fertility  to 
the  soil.  If  unmolested  they  will  cover  the  soil  as  a  blanket,  first  as  weeds, 
then  as  brush  and  finally  as  a  forest.  In  fact,  in  some  parts  of  our  country, 
land  is  farmed  until  crops  are  no  longer  profitable,  and  then  abandoned. 
Weeds  then  take  possession,  and  by  returning  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  they 
become  restorative  agents.  Give  nature  tune  enough  and  she  will  restore 
any  land  to  its  normal  fertility. 

Damage  Done  by  Weeds. — It  is  impossible  to  calculate  the  damage 
done  yearly  in  the  United  States  by  wreeds.  Investigators  roughly  esti- 
mate it  to  be  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars. 

Weeds  Reduce  Crop  Yields. — Weeds  are  more  rapid  of  growth  and 
more  tenacious  of  life  than  cultivated  plants.  They  crowd  out  the  rightful 
occupants  of  the  soil,  depriving  them  of  air  and  sunshine.  Being  more 
vigorous,  they  absorb  from  the  soil  the  plant  food  that  should  be  used  by 
the  crops,  thus  reducing  the  yield.  A  ton  of  dried  pigweed  contains  as 
much  phosphoric  acid,  twice  as  much  nitrogen  and  five  tunes  as  much 
potash  as  a  ton  of  ordinary  manure. 

Weeds  also  absorb  moisture  in  greater  quantities  and  more  rapidly 
than  crop  plants.  They  are  more  drought  resistant,  for,  having  appro- 
priated all  the  moisture  to  themselves,  they  continue  to  thrive  while  the 
plant  beside  them  dies.  Experiments  prove  that  some  weeds  transpire 
250  to  270  pounds  of  water  to  develop  a  pound  of  dry  matter. 

In  addition  to  this,  it  is  a  well-established  fact  that  weeds  exert  an 
injurious  effect  upon  crop  yields  by  giving  off  from  their  roots  substances 
which  are  poisonous  to  crop  plants. 

Weeds  cause  a  direct  money  loss  by  reducing  land  values.  A  would-be 
purchaser  is  not  so  apt  to  buy  a  farm  where  the  fields  are  thickly  covered 
with  mustard,  wild  carrot  or  the  ox-eye  daisy.  Naturally,  the  loss  in  value 
should  be  borne  by  the  man  who  has  allowed  his  land  to  be  so  abused. 

Weeds  increase  the  expense  of  harvesting  the  crop.  A  field  overrun 
with  weeds  calls  for  extra  labor  and  entails  extra  strain  on  the  machinery. 

23  (215) 


216  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

It  sometimes  necessitates  hand  labor,  which  is  most  expensive.  Also  the 
cost  of  threshing  and  cleaning  the  grain  is  increased  by  the  presence  of 
weed  seeds. 

Market  values  are  lessened  by  impure  grain.  Many  crops  are  docked 
full  half  their  value  on  account  of  noxious  weed  seeds.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  State  of  Minnesota  alone  suffers  a  loss  annually  of  over  $2,000,000, 
because  of  weed  seeds  in  the  wheat. 

But  the  loss  does  not  stop  here.  Some  weeds  harbor  and  encourage 
harmful  fungi  and  insects.  For  example,  the  very  common  clubroot  of 
cabbage  thrives  on  the  various  members  of  the  wild  mustard  family. 
Stubble  overgrown  with  weeds  harbors  cut  worms,  beetles  and  other  insect 
pests.  Mildew,  smut  and  rust  are  often  transferred  from  friendly  weeds 
to  the  grain  crop. 

Furthermore,  livestock  and  even  human  beings  lose  their  lives  as  the 
result  of  eating  poisonous  berries  or  roots.  The  water  hemlock  or  cow- 
bane  is  fatal  to  sheep  and  cattle.  The  deadly  loco-weed  on  the  western 
plains  has  caused  the  death  of  many  horses  and  cattle. 

How  Introduced  and  Spread. — Weeds  are  great  travelers.  They 
travel  by  means  of  the  wind  and  water.  They  are  carried  by  birds,  beasts 
and  human  beings.  They  are  disseminated  by  means  of  manure,  feedstuffs, 
machinery  and  grain  seeds. 

Such  weeds  as  the  thistle,  milkweed  and  the  dandelion  have  downy 
plumes  attached  to  each  seed.  The  faintest  breeze  will  carry  them  miles 
away,  where  they  begin  life  anew.  Members  of  the  dock  family  have 
seeds  supplied  with  wings  which  enable  them  to  float  upon  the  water  as 
well  as  upon  the  breeze.  Some  weed  seeds  have  sharp  barbs  and  stickers 
by  which  they  attach  themselves  to  the  hair  of  animals  and  to  the  clothing 
of  human  beings,  and  are  thus  carried  into  new  localities. 

When  it  is  known  how  many  thousand  seeds  one  weed-plant  produces, 
it  can  readily  be  seen  how  great  a  calamity  it  is  to  let  a  weed  bloom  and  go 
to  seed.  One  thistle  head  contains  enough  seeds  to  start  several  thousand 
plants  the  next  year.  It  is  estimated  that  one  wild  mustard  plant  produces 
10,000  seeds,  and  one  pigweed  115,000  seeds.  If  only  a  few  of  these  seeds 
germinated,  the  situation  would  not  be  alarming,  but  the  chances  are  that 
if  allowed  to  seed  a  very  high  percentage  of  them  will  find  opportunity  to 
propagate  their  kind. 

One  of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  weed  dissemination  is  in  the  buying 
and  sowing  of  impure  seeds.  Especially  is  this  true  of  clover  and  grass 
seeds.  In  an  analysis  of  several  samples  of  commercial  seed  at  one  of  the 
experiment  stations,  one  sample  of  red  clover  seed  was  found  to  contain 
36,000  weed  seeds  to  the  pound.  A  pound  sample  of  timothy  seed  contained 
79,000  weed  seeds. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  procure  seeds  only  from  uninfested  districts. 
A  farmer  should  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  seeds  to  enable  him  to  detect 
impurities.  It  is  a  wise  precaution  to  send  first  for  samples  of  seed  under 


WEEDS    AND    THEIR    ERADICATION         217 

consideration  for  purchase.  If  the  farmer  cannot  determine  with  reasonable 
certainty  as  to  their  purity  and  germinating  power,  he  should  submit  his 
sample  to  the  experiment  station  of  his  state,  that  the  weed  seeds  may  be 
identified.  These  institutions  gladly  test  samples  of  seeds  for  farmers  free 
of  charge. 

Careful  screening  will  overcome  much  of  the  difficulty  with  weed  seeds. 

Classification  of  Weeds. — It  is  not  enough  to  know  the  name  of  a 
weed.  In  order  to  win  in  the  struggle  against  a  weed  enemy,  one  must 
know  its  habits  of  life  and  its  methods  of  propagation.  There  is  no  weed  so 
vicious  that  it  cannot  be  subdued  or  even  entirely  eradicated  if  its  habits 
are  understood. 

Weeds  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  according  to  their  life  cycle: 
annuals,  biennials  and  perennials.  Annuals  complete  their  growth  and 
ripen  seed  in  one  season,  such  as  wild  mustard  and  ragweed.  These  weeds 
must  depend  upon  seed  in  order  to  grow  again  the  following  year.  It  can 
readily  be  seen  that  if  the  plant  is  destroyed  before  seeds  form,  the  source 
of  next  year's  crop  is  much  lessened. 

Unfortunately,  some  of  these  seeds  are  encased  in  an  oily  covering, 
enabling  them  to  resist  decay.  Wild  mustard  seed,  for  instance,  has  such 
power  of  vitality  that  it  has  been  known  to  germinate  after  having  lain  in 
the  ground  for  many  years. 

Biennials  are  not  so  easily  disposed  of.  They  require  two  years  hi 
which  to  complete  their  growth.  Some  of  them  have  long  tap  roots  in 
which  they  store  up  plant  food  during  the  first  year.  This  food  is  used  to 
produce  seed  during  the  second  summer.  Burdock  and  wild  carrot  are 
common  examples  of  this  class.  These  weeds  are  seldom  seen  in  cultivated 
fields,  for  the  plow  and  cultivator  are  disastrous  to  their  roots.  If  these 
weeds  are  cut  off  even  with  the  ground,  they  branch  out  and  become 
thicker  than  before.  Cutting  two  or  three  inches  below  the  surface  so  as 
to  destroy  the  crown  of  the  plant  is  effective. 

Perennials  grow  year  after  year  and  produce  seed  indefinitely.  Some 
of  them  reproduce  by  seed  only,  such  as  the  ox-eye  daisy  and  dandelion. 
Others  have  roots  running  under  ground  from  which  they  send  up  new 
plants  yearly.  Common  examples  of  this  kind  of  weed  are  Canada  thistle 
and  bindweed.  This  class  of  weeds  is  the  most  difficult  to  eradicate, 
for  wherever  these  roots  are  cut  or  bruised  new  stalks  are  sent  forth 
and  the  difficulty  increased.  There  is  one  time,  however,  during  the 
growing  season  when  these  weeds  are  most  effectively  attacked;  that  is, 
when  they  are  in  full  growth,  but  before  seeds  form.  No  plant  can  live 
long  without  a  leaf  system.  If  the  plants  are  cut  off  and  plowed  under  at 
this  time,  many  of  them  will  be  eradicated. 

Repeated  and  persistent  attacks,  however,  on  the  part  of  the  farmer 
will  be  necessary  for  ultimate  success.  The  poorer  the  land  becomes,  the 
greater  the  number  of  biennial  and  perennial  weeds.  They  seem  to  be  best 
adapted  to  the  poor  conditions  and  will  thrive  where  other  crops  fail. 


218 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Weed  Habitats. — Bindweed,  Canada  thistle  and  horse  nettle  are 
entirely  at  home  in  any  field,  whether  it  be  corn  field,  meadow  or  feed  lot. 
However,  it  is  a  well-established  fact  that  certain  weeds  seem  to  follow 
certain  crop-;.  For  instance,  corn  fields  are  mostly  infested  by  such  weeds 
as  foxtail,  cockle-bur  and  butter-print.  These  can  be  overcome  by  per- 
sistent cultivation.  Milkweeds  and  the  large  family  of  mustards,  of  which 
shepherds'  purse  and  wild  radish  are  members,  seem  to  follow  the  small 
grains.  The  mustard  family  is  easily  overcome  by  cutting  before  it  goes 
to  seed.  The  milkweed,  however,  is  more  difficult  to  eradicate,  as  it  spreads 
by  means  of  underground  roots.  Meadows  and  pastures  have  a  different 


THE  MANNER  IN  WHICH  CANADA  THISTLES  SPREAD  BY  UNDERGROUND 

ROOTSTOCKS.1 

When  the  rootstocks  are  brought  to  the  surface  by  plowing  at  the  right  depth 
they  may  be  raked  up  and  destroyed. 

type  of  weed  from  corn  and  small  grains.  Three  of  the  worst  meadow 
weeds  are  dock,  ragweed  and  buckhorn.  They  spread  by  seed  only  and 
can  be  kept  down  by  mowing  before  they  go  to  seed.  The  ground  must 
also  be  kept  well  seeded  to  grass  or  clover,  for  if  bare  spots  appear,  the 
weeds  are  quick  to  appropriate  them.  Sorrel  is  a  pasture  weed  which  is 
hard  to  eradicate,  as  it  spreads  by  means  of  underground  roots.  It  cannot 
compete  with  red  clover,  however,  for  a  place  in  the  meadows.  For  this 
reason  it  is  usually  found  in  meadows  where  the  acidity  of  the  soil  does  not 
encourage  red  clover.  Plowing  and  sowing  to  cultivated  crops  is  the  best 
method  of  eradication.  If  the  land  will  not  admit  of  cultivated  crops, 
common  salt  put  on  the  plants  will  kill  them  and  keep  them  from 
spreading. 

Principles   Governing   Control. — The   foregoing  discussion   suggests 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


WEEDS    AND    THEIR    ERADICATION         219 

the  necessity  of  working  out  a  system  of  farm  management  that  will  afford 
weeds  the  least  opportunity  to  gain  a  foothold.  The  problem  is  not  how  to 
rid  a  farm  of  weeds,  but  how  to  prevent  weeds  in  the  first  place.  This  can 
be  solved  by  a  system  of  cropping  which  takes  into  consideration  the  needs 
of  the  different  fields  as  regards  weed  eradication.  This  phase  of  the 
problem  has  been  discussed  under  the  chapter  on  "Rotations." 

A  few  general  principles  for  weed  prevention  and  eradication  are  here 
given: 

1.  Cut  all  weeds  before  seeding,  if  possible. 

2.  Burn  all  weeds  with  mature  seeds.     Do  not  plow  them  under. 

3.  Practice  crop  rotations. 

4.  Sow  clean  seed. 

5.  Watch  for  new  weeds  in  your  locality.     If  you  can  not  identify 
them,  send  them  to  your  experiment  station  for  identification. 

6.  See  that  the  laws  in  your  state  dealing  with  control  of  weed  plagues 
are  enforced. 

A  few  of  the  most  common  weeds  are  here  considered.* 

Canada  Thistle. — The  Canada  thistle  is  a  perennial  of  European  origin, 
and  is  the  most  dreaded  of  all  weed  pests.  It  is  a  common  weed  of  the 
northern  half  of  the  United  States.  The  stems  of  Canada  thistle  grow 
from  one  to  three  feet  tall ;  they  are  much  smaller  and  smoother  than  other 
thistles.  The  leaves  are  very  spiny  and  the  margin  has  a  ruffled  appear- 
ance. The  upper  side  of  the  leaves  is  smooth  and  bright  green  in  color, 
while  the  lower  side  is  downy  or  hairy.  The  flowers  are  rather  small, 
about  one-half  inch  in  diameter  and  of  a  rose-purple  color.  The  Canada 
thistle  flowers  from  June  to  September,  maturing  the  first  seed  by  the  mid- 
dle of  July.  The  seed  is  smooth  and  light-brown  in  color,  measuring 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  seed  is  easily  carried  by  the  wind  and 
is  most  commonly  found  in  medium  red  and  alsike  clover  seed. 

Propagation. — The  Canada  thistle  propagates  by  underground  root- 
stocks  as  well  as  by  seed.  The  underground  rootstocks  grow  rather  deeply 
in  the  soil  and  run  parallel  with  the  surface.  They  are  the  storehouse  of 
the  plants,  and  are  capable  of  sending  up  young  shoots  for  some  time  after 
the  parent  plant  has  been  destroyed.  This  fact  explains  the  persistency 
of  the  Canada  thistle.  As  long  as  the  plant  is  permitted  to  form  green 
leaves,  it  will  manufacture  plant  food,  which  is  stored  in  the  rootstocks. 
As  long  as  plant  food  is  present  in  the  rootstocks  they  are  capable  of  sending 
up  new  plants,  and  will  continue  to  thrive  as  long  as  they  grow  leaves  at 
the  surface. 

Control. — The  Canada  thistle  occurs  in  all  crops  in  the  rotation, 
consequently  no  one  method  of  control  will  be  effective.  The  details  of 
control  had  best  be  worked  out  for  each  particular  condition. 

To  thoroughly  subdue  the  pest  it  is  necessary  to  starve  out  the  root- 

*  Taken,  with  modifications,  from  The  Pennsylvania  Fanner,  prepared  by  Professor  Darst,  of  The 

Pennsylvania  State  College. 


220 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


stocks  by  cutting  off  all  green  parts  above  ground.  This  requires  destroy- 
ing the  plants  in  some  manner  every  week  at  first,  and  then  every  two  weeks 
until  the  rootstocks  die  of  starvation. 

In  a  small  grain  crop  keep  them  cut  with  scythe  or  hoe,  so  as  not  to 
let  them  go  to  seed.  After  harvest  the  land  should  be  plowed  rather  deeply 
and  then  worked  down  with  the  drag  harrow.  All  roots  harrowed  out 
should  be  piled,  dried  and  burned.  The  land  should  be  disked  regularly 
about  every  ten  days,  so  as  to  destroy  stray  plants.  In  the  late  fall  the 
land  should  be  re-plowed,  but  not  worked  down,  so  as  to  expose  the  remain- 
ing roots  to  frost  action.  In  the  early  spring 
the  ground  should  be  worked  with  a  disk  and 
a  smother  crop  sown,  such  as  oats  and  Canada 
field  peas,  millet  or  buckwheat. 

Canada  thistles  occurring  in  pastures  must 
be  cut  out  below  the  ground  every  ten  days 
until  starved  out.  After  cutting  the  plants, 
it  is  well  to  pour  a  little  kerosene  on  the  stem 
and  roots.  Often  spraying  with  strong  con- 
centrated salt  solution  will  be  effective  in 
pastures  and  waste  places.  The  spraying 
should  be  done  thoroughly  and  repeated  when 
young  shoots  reappear.  Spray  materials 
should  be  applied  under  high  pressure,  and  in 
a  vapor  spray,  to  be  effective. 

After  all,  sprays  used  as  a  substitute  for  the 
scythe  and  mower  will  not  kill  the  roots  below 
the  ground. 

When  the  thistle  occurs  in  a  cultivated 
crop,  knives  or  sweeps  should  be  used  on  the 
cultivator    instead   of   the   ordinary   shovels. 
The  sweeps  will  be  more  effective   in   cutting 
off  the  plants.     The  thistles  that  grow  within 
the  row  should  be  kept  cut  out  with  the  hoe. 
Quack  Grass. — Quack  grass  is  perennial  and  propagates  both  by  seeds 
and  creeping  underground  rootstocks.     The  stems  grow  from  one  to  two 
feet  tall.     The  leaves  are  ashy  green  in  color,  rough  on  the  upper  side  and 
smooth  beneath.     The  plant  flowers  in  June  and  seeds  in  July. 

The  plant  sends  out  underground  rootstocks  which  are  jointed,  each 
joint  capable  of  budding  a  new  plant.  Quack  grass  grows  an  enormous 
root  system,  which  soon  crowds  and  smothers  out  other  plants. 

Control. — Quack  grass  may  be  subdued  if  no  green  leaves  are  allowed 
to  develop.  Since  quack  grass  makes  fair  pasture,  a  good  plan,  where 
possible,  is  to  pasture  it  close  to  the  ground  during  the  midsummer;  then 
plow  deeply  in  the  early  fall.  The  ground  should  be  worked  down  immedi- 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


THE  CANADA  THISTLE 

(Circium  arvense).1 
B — Seed  enlarged. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  ERADICATION 


221 


QUACK  GRASS  (Agropyron  repens)  .J 


ately  with  the  spike-tooth  harrow.    This  will  drag  out  a  great  many  of  the 

roots.      These   should   be  dragged    or 

raked  to  one  end  of  the  field,  to  be 

dried  in  piles  and  then  burned.     The 

ground   should   be  plowed  the  second 

time,  late  in  the  fall.     This  should  be 

done   crossways   of  the   first   plowing. 

The   ground   should  be  worked  down 

again  with  the  harrow  and  as  many  of 

the  rootstocks  dragged  out,  piled  and 

burned  as  possible. 

The  next  spring  cultivation  should 

begin  as  early  as  possible,  the  ground 

being  worked  every  few  days.     Then  a 

cultivated    crop    should    be    planted, 

preferably  corn.     The  corn  should  be 

planted    in    hills    so    that    cultivation 

can  be  given  both  ways  of  the  field. 

The    corn   should   be   cultivated  thor- 
oughly and    a   close    watch   kept    for 

any  stray  quack  grass  which  may  come  up. 
If  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  whether 
the  quack  grass  is  completely  killed,  a 
mixture  of  hairy  vetch  and  rye  should  be 
sown  in  the  last  cultivation  of  the  corn. 
This  cover  crop  should  be  plowed  down  the 
next  spring  and  a  heavy  seeding  of  millet 
sown.  The  cover  crop  and  the  millet  fol- 
lowing the  corn  will  surely  smother  out  the 
last  of  the  quack  grass. 

A  thick  covering  of  straw  or  manure  a 
foot  or  so  thick  and  well  packed  down,  will 
smother  out  the  grass.  It  will  take  from 
two  to  three  months  to  smother  out  quack 
grass,  as  the  roots  remain  alive  for  some 
time  even  though  the  tops  above  ground 
be  dead. 

Foxtail. — The  green  and  yellow  foxtails 
are  very  similar  in  appearance  and  in  habit. 
They  are  both  annuals  and  propagate  by 
seed  alone,  seeding  from  August  to  October. 
The  yellow  foxtail  is  a  common  weed  all  over  the  world,  while  the 

green  foxtail  is  found  mostly  in  North  America.     The  seed  of  the  foxtails 

are  common  impurities  in  many  grass  and  legume  seeds.     Once  in  the 

l  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


GREEN  FOXTAIL  (Getaria 
viridis)  ,l 

1 — Concave  side  of  seed. 
3 — Convex  side  of  seed. 
Both  enlarged. 


222 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


ground,  they  retain  their  vitality  for  many  years,  germinating  only  when 
brought  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  stems  of  the  foxtails  grow 
from  one  to  four  feet  tall.  The  leaves  are  three  to  six  inches  long  and  are 
rather  wide,  flat  and  smooth.  The  seed  heads  are  from  two  to  four  inches 
long.  The  seed  is  yellowish-brown  in  color,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in 
length  and  ovoid  in  shape. 

Control. — In  grain  fields  the  stubbles  should  be  given  surface  cultiva- 
tion or,  if  the  soil  is  dry  enough,  burning  over  will  destroy  the  seeds  that 
have  fallen  on  the  ground. 

In  cultivated  crops  tillage  should  be  continued  very  late,  in  order  to 

prevent  the  development 
and  distribution  of  seed 
from  late-grown  plants. 
Sheep  may  be  turned  in  to 
graze  down  the  aftermath 
of  infested  meadows. 

Dodders. — There  are 
several  kinds  of  dodders; 
those  found  in  this 
country  are  known  as 
common  dodder,  field 
dodder,  clover  dodder  and 
alfalfa  dodder. 

They  are  annuals 
and  propagate  by  seed, 
and  are  very  peculiar 
weeds  because  they  live 

A  B  C  upon  other  plants.    From 

FIELD  DODDER.    FLAX  DODDER.     ALFALFA  DODDER.*      their  habit  of  growth  they 

Seeds  enlarged.  Blossom  of  ,  . , 

Alfalfa  Dodder.  are  known  as  parasites. 

The  seeds  of  the 

dodder  germinate  in  the  soil  and  the  young  plants  soon  perish  unless 
they  come  in  contact  with  a  clover  or  alfalfa  plant.  Once  in  contact 
with  a  suitable  host  plant,  the  roots  of  the  weed  soon  decay.  The  fine 
yellowish  and  reddish  stems  twine  about  the  host  and  spread  from  plant 
to  plant;  a  single  dodder  plant  often  growing  on  several  different  host 
plants  at  the  same  time. 

This  weed  derives  its  nourishment  by  sending  little  suckers  out  into 
the  stems  of  the  plant  on  which  it  grows.  Dodders  appear  lifeless  to  the 
casual  observer  as  the  leaves  are  reduced  to  mere  scales. 

The  white  or  pink  flowers  occur  in  clusters  along  the  slender  stems. 
During  the  latter  part  of  summer  the  cluster  may  contain  flowers  in  bloom 
and  the  matured  seed  at  the  same  time. 

Small  patches  of  dodder  may  result  from  a  single  seed.     A  patch  can 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


WEEDS    AND    THEIR    ERADICATION 


223 


be  distinguished  at  quite  a  distance  on  account  of  its  distinct  yellowish 
cast. 

Dodder  seed  is  very  difficult  to  remove  from  clover  and  alfalfa  seed. 

Eradication. — The  first  step  in  the  control  of  dodder  is  to  sow  clean 
seed.  Clover  and  alfalfa  seed  should  be  carefully  examined  for  the  pest 
before  it  is  sown. 

When  a  field  is  badly  infested  the  crop  should  be  plowed  under  before 
the  seeds  form.  Dodder  seed,  plowed 
under,  may  remain  in  the  soil  for  seven  or 
eight  years  and  then  germinate.  After 
plowing,  plant  a  cultivated  crop  for  a  year 
or  two;  as  the  weed  is  an  annual,  it  yields 
readily  to  cultivation. 

When  dodder  occurs  in  small  patches 
it  may  be  successfully  eradicated  by  dig- 
ging up  the  infested  areas.  To  avoid  scat- 
tering the  seed,  dry  and  burn  the  plants 
on  the  spot. 

The  dried  plants  may  be  burned  by 
covering  them  with  straw  or  shavings 
soaked  with  kerosene.  After  the  first 
burning,  stir  the  surface  with  a  rake,  then 
burn  over  for  the  second  time,  so  as  to  de- 
stroy any  seed  that  may  have  matured  and 
fallen  to  the  ground. 

After  a  patch  has  been  dug  up,  burned 
and  re-seeded,  it  will  be  well  to  watch  for 
stray  plants  which  may  come.  If  such 

plants  appear,  destroy  them  before  flower-   PLANTAIN  (Plantago  lanceolata)}- 
ing  time .  B — Two  times  natural  size  of  seeds. 

When    dodder    seed    is    allowed    to 

mature  in  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  it  should  not  be  removed  from  the  field, 
but  should  be  dried  and  burned. 

Weed  sprays  are  sometimes  recommended  for  killing  dodder  in  clover 
and  alfalfa.  The  spraying  should  be  done  before  or  at  blooming  time  in 
order  to  prevent  the  seed  formation.  A  twenty  per  cent  solution  of  iron 
sulphate  is  found  effective  on  alfalfa  fields.  The  spray  will  kill  the  parasite 
and  apparently  destroy  the  crop,  but  a  new  growth  of  alfalfa  will  spring 
from  the  roots  as  soon  as  the  plant  is  relieved  of  the  pesfc. 

Buckhorn. — Buckhorn  is  a  perennial  of  European  origin.  The  weed 
propagates  by  seed,  which  matures  any  time  from  May  to  November. 
The  plant  has  a  short,  thick  root-stem  which  enables  it  to  exist  over  winter. 
Buckhorn  leaves  are  long  and  slender,  borne  in  rosette-like  clusters  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  The  plant  does  not  produce  stems  as  other  weeds 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


BUCKHORN  OR  NARROW-LEAVED 


224 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


commonly  do,  but  sends  up  a  stiff,  slender  flower  stalk  one  to  two  feet  long, 
at  the  end  of  which  there  is  a  short,  compact  head  or  spike.  The  figure 
shows  the  plant  in  bloom.  After  blooming,  the  heads  elongate  somewhat 
and  turn  a  dark  brown  color.  The  seeds  are  shaped  like  a  coffee  grain,  but 
very  much  smaller,  measuring  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long.  The  seeds 
are  a  shiny  amber  to  rich  brown  color.  A  dark-colored  scar  is  present  on 
the  concave  surface,  while  a  narrow  yellowish  stripe  is  generally  present 
on  the  back  of  the  seed. 

Control. — Buckhorn  is  a  very  common  and  persistent  weed  in  meadows, 

pastures  and  lawns.  It  is  without  doubt 
the  most  common  of  all  weed  seed  in  clover 
and  alfalfa  seed.  In  fact,  it  is  very  difficult 
to  buy  seed,  even  from  the  best  of  seedsmen, 
that  is  entirely  free  from  this  weed.  The 
first  step  in  controlling  the  weed  on  the  farm 
is  to  sow  nothing  but  clean  seed. 

Where  meadows  and  pastures  are  badly 
infested  they  should  be  plowed  and  a  culti- 
vated crop  grown  for  one  or  two  years.  By 
thorough  cultivation  and  the  use  of  hoes,  all 
plants  may  be  destroyed  before  going  to 
seed.  The  seed  remaining  in  the  soil  will 
be  induced  to  germinate  by  frequent  culti- 
vation, thus  making  it  possible  to  rid  a  field 
of  the  pest  in  one  or  two  seasons. 

Small  areas  in  lawns  may  be  controlled 
by  cutting  out  with  a  spud  or  narrow-bladed 
hoe.  This  method  is  more  effective  during 
hot,  dry  weather.  Buckhorn  can  be  de- 
stroyed with  carbolic  acid  without  injuring  or 
defacing  the  lawn.  Stab  each  plant  in  the 
center,  down  to  the  fibrous  cluster  of  roots, 

with  a  pointed  stick  and  squirt  into  the  opening  a  few  drops  of  the  acid 
with  a  common  machine  oil  can. 

Plantain. — The  common  plantain  is  a  very  persistent  weed  in 
lawns  and  yards.  The  plant  is  a  perennial  and  propagates  by  seed.  Plan- 
tain does  not  produce  a  true  stem  as  most  other  plants.  The  leaves,  which 
grow  in  a  tuft  near  the  ground  are  large,  coarse  and  oval  in  shape.  The 
weed  flowers  from  May  throughout  the  summer  and  ripe  seed  may  be  found 
by  July. 

The  seeds  are  dark  brown  to  black,  slightly  flattened,  with  acute 
edges.  They  are  variable  in  shape,  measuring  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  in 
length. 

Control. — Common  plantain  when  occurring  in  fields  will  yield  readily 

*  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


COMMON  OR  BROAD-LEAVED 
PLANTAIN  (Plantago  major).1 

B — Two  times  natural  size  of 


WEEDS    AND    THEIR    ERADICATION 


225 


to  thorough  cultivation.     The  control  is  the  same  as  recommended  for 
buckhorn. 

In  lawns  the  most  practical  method  of  eradicating  it  is  by  hand 
digging.  If  the  plant  is  cut  off  several  inches  below  the  ground  during 
dry  weather,  it  will  give  no  more  trouble. 

Carbolic  acid  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  recommended  for 
buckhorn,  where  digging  roughens  the  lawn. 

Pigweed. — Pigweed  is  an  annual  and  is  commonly  found  growing  in 
cultivated  fields  and  waste  places.  While  the  weed  itself  is  not  hard  to 
eradicate,  yet  it  produces  abundantly 
seeds  which  have  long  vitality.  The  seed 
has  been  known  to  survive  in  the  ground 
for  more  than  twenty  years. 

The  pigweed  has  a  long,  fleshy,  red 
taproot.  The  main  stem  is  erect,  stout, 
woody  and  slightly  branched.  The  stem 
and  branches  are  covered  with  stiff,  short 
hairs. 

Usually  the  plant  will  grow  from  one 
to  four  feet  tall,  but  under  more  favorable 
conditions  it  will  often  reach  six  feet. 

The  leaves  are  long  and  ovate  in 
shape,  measuring  from  three  to  six  inches 
in  length.  The  small  greenish  flowers 
are  crowded  into  thick,  compact  heads 
which  are  borne  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches  or  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 
The  pigweed  flowers  from  July  to  Sep- 
tember and  produces  enormous  quantities 

of  small,  shiny  seeds.     The  seed  is  a  jet   PIGWEED  (Amaranthus  retroflexus)}- 
black  color,  oval  and  flat  in  shape.     It  C — Root, 

propagates  by  seeds  only. 

Control. — Pigweed  seed  is  commonly  found  in  commercial  seeds  of 
different  kinds.  The  first  step  in  its  eradication  is  to  guard  against  buying 
seed  containing  this  weed. 

Thorough  cultivation  will  suppress  the  weed.  In  case  cultivation 
cannot  be  continued  late  into  the  summer  the  weed  should  be  pulled  or  cut 
out  with  a  hoe  before  going  to  seed.  Plants  which  are  pulled  or  cut  while 
blooming  should  be  destroyed,  as  they  frequently  mature  seed  after  cut. 

Pigweed  may  be  destroyed  in  small  grain  crops  by  the  use  of  the  weeder 
or  the  spike-tooth  harrow.  By  going  over  the  grain  field  when  the  crop  is 
but  a  few  inches  tall  the  small  seedlings  may  be  dug  out  without  injuring 
the  grain.  If  the  weed  makes  its  appearance  later  on  in  the  growth  of  a 
small  grain  crop,  it  may  be  killed  with  an  iron  or  copper  sulphate  spray. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


226 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  spray  to  be  effective  must  be  applied  before  the  grain  begins  to  head 
and  before  the  weeds  bloom. 

Lamb's-Quarters. — Lamb's-quarters  is  sometimes  known  as  smooth 
pigweed  or  white  goosefoot.  This  weed  is  a  very  common  annual  through- 
out the  world.  It  is  commonly  found  in  cultivated  fields,  orchards  and 
gardens. 

Lamb's-quarters  is  distinguished  by  its  upright  grooved  and  many 
branched  stem.  The  stems  are  often  striped  with  purple.  The  plant  is  a 
rapid  grower  and  attains  a  height  of  from  two  to  four  feet.  The  leaves  are 
quite  variable  as  to  size  and  shape,  the  lower  ones  on  the  stock  being  com- 
paratively large  and  irregular,  while  the 
upper  ones  are  rather  small  and  narrow. 
The  small  greenish  flowers  are  borne 
on  the  ends  or  in  the  axils  of  the  branches. 
The  entire  plant  presents  a  silvery  gray 
or  mealy  appearance  which  distinguishes 
it  from  the  true  pigweed.  The  seed  is 
about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, lens-shaped  and  a  dull  black  color. 
The  seeds  have  long  vitality,  lying  dor- 
mant in  the  soil  for  many  years. 

The  control  of  lamb's-quarters  is 
similar  to  that  of  pigweed.  In  hoed 
crops  the  weed  is  very  persistent  and 
cultivation  should  be  continued  until  late 
in  the  season.  In  gardens  and  other 
small  areas  the  weed  should  be  pulled  or 
chopped  out  while  young. 

Since  the  plants  are  very  succulent 
while    young,    sheep    may   be   used    to 
pasture  them  where  conditions  will  per- 
mit.    Cultivation  in  the  late  summer  or  fall  will  germinate  seed  remaining 
in  the  soil  which  will  eliminate  the  seed  that  may  germinate  the  next 
year. 

Wild  Mustard  or  Charlock. — The  cmciferse  or  mustard  family  con- 
tains a  large  number  of  weeds,  of  which  the  wild  mustard  and  tumbling 
mustard  are  the  most  troublesome.  The  plants  of  this  family  may  be 
recognized  by  the  shape  of  the  flowers,  which  consist  of  four  petals  arranged 
like  arms  of  a  cross.  This  character  was  used  as  the  basis  for  naming  the 
family. 

Wild  mustard,  because  of  its  immense  productiveness  and  the  exceed- 
ingly long  vitality  of  its  seeds,  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  weeds  to  dislodge. 
It  is  an  annual  plant,  which  in  its  earlier  stages  of  growth  bears  some 
resemblance  to  the  radish  or  yellow-fleshed  varieties  of  the  turnip.     It 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


LAMB'S-QUARTERS,  OR  SMOOTH 
PIGWEED  (Chenopodium  album).1 

A— Root. 

B — Seed  enlarged  three  times 
natural  size. 


WEEDS    AND    THEIR    ERADICATION         227 


produces  erect  branching  stems  from  one  to  three  feet  in  height  which  are 
somewhat  roughened  by  short  stiff  hairs. 

The  leaves  are  quite  variable;  the  lower  cnes  are  slender-stalked  and 
deeply  pinnatifid,  forming  one  large  terminal  lobe  with  two  to  four  smaller 
lateral  lobes. 

The  upper  leaves  are  irregularly  toothed,  somewhat  hairy  and  have 
very  short  petioles;  the  lobes  are  not  very  pronounced,  while  the  terminal 
one  is  much  narrower  than  the  terminal  lobe 
of  the  lower  leaves. 

The  plant  flowers  from  June  to  September 
and  mature  seeds  may  be  found  as  early  as 
August.  The  bright  yellow,  fragrant  flowers 
which  are  about  one-half  inch  in  diameter  are 
borne  in  elongated  clusters  at  the  end  of  the 
stem  and  branches. 

The  flowers  begin  to  open  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cluster,  which  lengthens  as  the  season 
advances,  and  the  pods  form  and  empty  so  that 
there  may  be  emptied  pods  below  and  forming 
pods  above.  One  of  the  pods  may  contain 
from  four  to  twelve  seeds. 

The  round  dark  reddish-brown  seeds  are 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
They  are  a  common  impurity  of  grass  and 
clover  seeds. 

Wild  mustard  grows  in  all  kinds  of  grain 
crops  that  are  sown  in  the  spring  and  usually 
matures  its  seeds  before  the  grain  in  which  it 
grows  is  ripe.  Where  spring  grains  are  chiefly 
grown  the  contest  with  this  weed  will  be  a 
difficult  one. 

Wild  mustard  is  distributed  by  different 
agencies.     Some  of  the  small  seeds  are  carried 
from  place  to  place  by  the  birds,  but  usually 
the  weed  finds  its  way  to  new  centers  in  grain  seed.      The  threshing 
machine  is  also  a  potent  means  of  carrying  it  from  farm  to  farm. 

It  is  further  distributed  over  farms  on  which  it  grows  by  means  of 
manures.  It  is  also  very  frequently  distributed  by  spring  floods;  when 
this  is  the  case  the  farmer  has  a  difficult  job. 

Control. — Wild  mustard  seed  is  a  common  impurity  of  small  grain, 
clover  and  alfalfa  seed.  The  first  step  in  its  eradication  is  to  avoid  sowing 
seed  containing  the  pest.  As  the  seeds  are  small,  they  are  easily  removed 
from  wheat,  oats  and  barley  by  screening.  Wild  mustard  is  most  common 
in  grain  fields  and  generally  disappears  in  grass  and  cultivated  crops. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Fanner. 


WILD  MUSTARD 
(Brassica  arvensis).1 

A — Pod,  natural  size. 
B — Blossom,  one-third  natu- 
ral size. 
C — Seed  enlarged  four  times. 


228 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


A  good  short  rotation  will  in  time  reduce  the  seed  in  the  soil.  In 
grain  fields,  young  seedlings  may  be  harrowed  out  when  the  grain  is  but  a 
few  inches  high.  Later  on  the  mustard  may  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of 
iron  sulphate  or  copper  sulphate  spray.  Iron  sulphate  is  probably  the 
most  efficient  and  cheapest  spray.  The  spraying  should  be  done  before 
the  grain  heads  are  out  and  when  the  mustard  is  just  beginning  to  flower. 
The  spraying  at  this  time  will  kill  practically  all  the  mustard  with  little 
or  no  injury  to  the  grain.  Spraying  for  weeds  should  be  done  on  a  bright, 
still  day  when  there  are  no  immediate  prospects  of  rain.  For  spraying, 

use  a  solution  made  by  dissolving  100 
pounds  of  iron  sulphate  in  52  gallons  of 
water.  This  solution  should  be  used  at 
the  rate  of  50  gallons  to  the  acre  and  put 
on  at  a  high  pressure  of  100  or  more  pounds 
to  the  square  inch.  The  spraying  can  be 
done  at  a  cost  of  approximately  $1.25  per 
acre. 

Shepherd's-Purse. — Shepherd's-purse 
.is  sometimes  known  as  Case  weed,  St. 
James'  weed  and  Mother's  Heart.  "With 
the  exception  of  the  chickweed,  it  is  prob- 
ably the  most  common  weed  on  earth," 
being  found  in  all  cultivated  regions  of  the 
world. 

Shepherd's-purse  is  very  prolific  and 
its  seeds  have  long  vitality.  This  weed 
often  harbors  the  club-root  fungus,  so 
common  on  cabbage,  cauliflower,  turnips 
and  radishes,  and  will  infect  soil  where 
those  plants  are  cultivated. 

Shepherd's-purse  is  an  annual,  or 
winter  annual.  It  is  one  of  the  first  plants 

to  make  its  appearance  in  the  spring  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
it  making  a  good  growth  in  March. 

The  seeds,  as  a  rule,  germinate  in  the  fall  and  form  a  rosette  of  leaves, 
close  to  the  ground.  From  this  rosette  the  following  spring,  arise  the  stems 
which  vary  from  three  inches  to  two  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  growing 
close  to  the  ground  are  rather  long  and  deeply  cut,  while  those  on  the  stem 
are  small  and  arrow  shaped.  The  small  white  flowers  are  borne  in  elon- 
gated heads  or  racemes.  On  the  flowering  stalks  will  be  found  all  gradua- 
tions from  a  small  bunch  of  flowers  in  bloom  at  the  end,  down  to  mature 
pods  below. 

Shepherd's-purse  is  propagated  by  seeds  only,  which  germinate  either 
in  the  fall  or  spring.  This  weed  flowers  and  produces  seed  throughout  the 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


SHEPHERD  '  s-PuRSE 
(Capsella  bursapastoris)  .l 

A — Enlarged  seed  pod. 
B — Enlarged  seed. 


WEEDS    AND    THEIR    ERADICATION        229 

season.  An  average  size  plant  will  produce  about  2000  seeds.  The  seeds 
are  very  small  and  covered  with  a  transparent,  mucilaginous  material 
which  preserves  them  in  the  soil  for  several  seasons. 

Control. — Shepherd 's-purse  may  be  controlled  in  the  field  or  garden 
by  thorough  cultivation  and  use  of  the  hoe. 

In  meadows  or  small  grain  fields  the  weed  may  be  destroyed  by  spray- 
ing. Spray  while  the  weed  is  still  young,  and  if  possible  before  it  blooms. 
Seventy-five  pounds  of  iron  sulphate  to  fifty  gallons  of  water  is  recom- 
mended as  a  good  weed  spray.  The  spray  material  should  be  applied  under 
high  pressure  and  in  mist.  It  will  take  about  fifty  gallons  to  the  acre. 

If  one  intends  to  spray  weeds  hi  pastures  or  small  gram  crops  on  a 
large  scale,  it  will  pay  to  purchase  a  weed  sprayer,  which  is  better  adapted 
for  the  work  and  will  be  more  effective  and  economical  than  ordinary 
sprayers. 

Weeds  can  be  sprayed  in  grass  fields,  but  not  in  alfalfa  or  clover 
fields,  as  the  spray  will  kill  the  clover  as  well  as  the  weeds. 

Peppergrass. — Peppergrass  is  a  native  of  this  country;  an  annual, 
and  propagates  by  seed.  It  seeds  from  June  to  October  and  will  be  found 
in  small  grains  and  clover  fields.  The  seed  is  often  found  in  timothy  and 
red  clover  seed  on  the  market. 

Peppergrass  grows  from  six  inches  to  two  feet  tall  and  is  much 
branched.  The  weed  sometimes  becomes  a  tumble  weed  because  of  its 
spreading  growth. 

The  flowers  are  white  and  very  small,  borne  on  racemes  or  elongated 
heads.  The  seeds  are  formed  in  round  but  flattened  pods.  They  are 
small,  measuring  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Birds  are  very  fond  of  the  seed  and  dispose  of  large  quantities. 

Control. — The  control  is  similar  to  that  of  shepherd's-purse.  Care 
should  be  taken  in  plowing  under  plants  that  are  nearly  mature,  since  part 
of  the  seeds  will  germinate. 

Badly  infested  land  should  be  planted  to  a  cultivated  crop  and  thor- 
oughly cultivated;  thorough  cultivation  being  all  that  is  necessary  to 
control  the  weed. 

Cocklebur. — Cocklebur  is  known  by  several  other  Common  names, 
i.e.,  "Clotbur,"  "Sheepsbur,"  "Buttonbur"  and  "Ditchbur."  This  weed 
is  an  annual  and  native  of  this  country.  The  plant  is  coarse,  rough  and 
branched,  growing  from  one  to  four  feet  tall.  The  stems  are  angled  and 
often  reddish,  spotted  with  brown.  The  leaves  are  broad,  bristly  rough  on 
both  sides  and  placed  alternately  on  the  stems. 

Cocklebur  bears  the  male  and  female  flowers  at  different  places  on  the 
plant.  The  male  flowers  are  borne  above  and  near  the  end  of  the  main 
stem,  while  the  female  flower  clusters  are  borne  below  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves. 

The  seeds  of  the  cocklebur  are  borne  in  reddish-brown,  two-peaked 
burs  which  are  covered  with  stout  hooked  prickles.  Each  bur  contains 


'230 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


two  seeds.  It  is  claimed  that  one  of  the  two  seeds  germinate  the  first  year 
and  the  other  the  following  year,  thus  insuring  at  least  seed  for  two  years. 
Control. — Clean  cultivation  and  the  rotation  of  crops  are  recommended 
for  this  obnoxious  weed.  Infested  corn  fields  should  be  put  into  a  small 
grain  crop,  followed  by  clover  or  grass.  The  harvesting  of  these  crops  will 
kill  or  behead  the  weed  before  it  has  time  to  grow  much  or  develop  burs. 
Plants  that  have  formed  burs  should  be  cut,  raked  and  burned. 

Field  Bindweed  or  Wild  Morning  Glory. — It  is  most  commomy  found 

in  grain  fields,  meadows  and  waste  places. 
"It  is  a  most  obnoxious  weed,  spreading 
chiefly  by  means  of  its  long,  creeping,  cord- 
like  roots,  which  at  any  part  of  their  length 
may  bud  new  plants."  Small  bits  of  the 
roots  may  be  broken  off  and  carried  quite 
a  distance  [by  a  cultivator  and  produce 
new  plants. 

"The  stems  are  smooth,  slightly 
angled,  slender,  one  to  three  feet  long,  twin- 
ing about  and  over  any  plants  within 
reach/'  tending  to  smother  them.  The 
leaves  are  cordate  or  heart-shaped,  one  to 
one  and  one-half  inches  long,  with  back- 
ward pointing  lobes  at  the  base.  The 
flowers  are  pink,  sometimes  nearly  white, 
funnel-shaped,  about  one  inch  in  diameter 
at  the  mouth  of  the  tube. 

This  plant  is  propagated  by  seed  and 
the  underground  fleshy  root-stocks.  It 
flowers  from  June  throughout  the  summer 
and  mature  seed  may  be  found  in  July. 

The  seeds,  which  are  borne  in  globular, 
COCKLEBUR  (Xanthium  canadense}.1  two-celled  capsules,  are  dull,  dark  brown, 
A — Bur  two-thirds  natural  size,      about  one-eighth   inch  long,  rough,  oval, 

with  one  side  flat  and  the  other  rounded. 

Control. — If  the  land  is  planted  to  crops  that  can  be  cultivated  very 
often  throughout  the  growing  season,  field  bindweed  can  be  completely 
eradicated  in  two  years. 

When  this  weed  grows  in  pastures  and  waste  places,  its  growth  may  be 
checked  by  allowing  sheep  to  have  access  to  the  places  where  it  grows.  Three 
years  of  pasturing  with  a  large  number  of  sheep  will  greatly  weaken  this 
pest,  if  not  kill  it  entirely. 

Infested  land  should  be  plowed  in  the  late  summer  after  a  crop  has 
been  removed  and  hogs  which  have  not  been  ringed  turned  in  for  the 
purpose  of  turning  out  and  eating  the  succulent  roots,  of  which  they  are 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


WEEDS    AND    THEIR    ERADICATION 


231 


very  fond.  If  hogs  are  again  turned  into  the  field  as  soon  as  possible  in 
the  spring  and  left  until  planting  time  the  weed  will  be  considerably 
weakened  in  vitality. 

Hedge  Bindweed. — This  weed  is  very  similar  to  field  bindweed  and 
about  as  hard  to  eradicate;  its  rootstocks  are  larger  and  not  so  difficult 
to  remove  from  the  soil.  The  trailing  or 
twining  stems  are  three  to  ten  feet  or  more 
in  length  and  have  the  same  method  of 
destroying  other  plants.  The  leaves  are 
smooth,  long,  triangular  and  pointed  at  the 
end  instead  of  rounded  as  the  field  bindweed. 
The  base  of  the  leaves  forms  pointed  lobes. 
The  funnel-shaped  flowers  are  about  two 
inches  long,  pink  with  white  stripes  or  clear 
white.  They  are  borne  singly  on  slender 
flower  stocks  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 
The  seed  capsules  are  globular  and  may 
contain  four  seeds,  but  often  only  three  are 
fertile;  the  dark-brown,  kidney-shaped 
seeds  are  angular  and  about  one-eighth  inch 
long.  They  retain  vitality  for  several  years. 

Control. — The  rootstalks  should  be 
starved  persistently  by  the  frequent  cutting 
of  the  stems.  The  weed  loves  the  mellow 
soil  of  a  cornfield.  If  the  land  is  planted 
to  corn,  this  will  mean  that  as  soon  as  the 
corn  is  too  large  to  be  cultivated  by  a 
cultivator  the  field  should  be  gone  over 
with  a  hoe  and  all  young  shoots  cut  off  as 
soon  as  they  make  their  appearance. 
Keeping  them  cut  prevents  the  pest  from 
maturing  seed  and  leaves  to  re-stock  the 
underground  storehouse  with  food  for 
another  year. 

Fifty  Worst  Weeds. — The  following  table  gives  an  alphabetical  list 
of  the  fifty  worst  weeds  of  the  United  States,  with  such  information  as  will 
enable  the  reader:  (1)  to  identify  them;  (2)  to  determine  the  nature  and 
place  of  their  greatest  injuriousness;  (3)  to  determine  their  duration  or 
natural  length  of  life,  that  is,  whether  annual,  biennial  or  perennial;  and 
(4)  some  methods  of  eradication.  With  this  knowledge  one  will  be  able  to 
attack  much  more  intelligently  any  troublesome  weed. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


FIELD  BINDWEED 
(Convolvulus  arvensis).1 

After  F.  S.  Matthews  in  Manual 
of  Weeds,  by  Ada  E.  Georgia. 


24 


232 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


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236  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


REFERENCES 

"A  Manual  of  Weeds."     A.  E.  Georgia. 

"Farm  Weeds  of  Canada."     Clark. 

"Common  Weeds  of  the  Farm  and  Garden."     Long  and  Percival. 

"Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them."     Shaw. 

North  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  112.     "Fertility  and  Weeds." 

Canadian  Dept  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  188.     "Weeds  of  Ontario." 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  BuUetin  257.     "Weed  Factor 

in  Corn  Cultivation." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

306.      'Dodder  in  Relation  to  Farm  Seeds." 

334.      'Weed  Seeds  in  Feeding-stuffs  and  Manure." 

368.      'Eradication  of  Bindweed  or  Wild  Morning  Glory." 

464.      'Eradication  of  Quack  Grass." 

545.      'Controlling  Canada  Thistles." 

610.      'Wild  Onion:  Methods  of  Eradication." 

660.      '  Weeds,  How  to  Control  Them." 


PART  II 
DISEASES  OF  FARM  CROPS 


(237) 


CHAPTER  19 

DISEASES  OF  FARM  CROPS  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES 

BY  DR.  MEL.  T.  COOK 
Plant  Pathologist,  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

When  any  of  the  various  parts  of  a  plant  are  not  doing  their  work 
properly  the  plant  is  said  to  be  diseased.  The  disease  frequently  causes 
poor  growth  or  poor  fruit,  or  both;  and  in  case  of  our  cultivated  plants,  an 
unsatisfactory  crop. 

The  most  important  causes  of  plant  diseases  are  fungi,  bacteria,  slime 
moulds,  parasitic  flowering  plants,  insects,  mites,  nematodes,  unsatisfactory 
soil,  too  much  or  too  small  amount  of  moisture,  unfavorable  temperature, 
gas  fumes  and  smoke.  Some  plant  diseases  occur  for  which  there  are  no 
satisfactory  explanations. 

Plant  diseases  may  be  detected  by  characteristic  symptoms  which 
readily  distinguish  the  disease  upon  the  healthy  plants.  The  most  common 
of  these  symptoms  are:  (a)  a  discoloration  of  the  foliage  and  sometimes 
of  the  new  growths;  (6)  wilting,  frequently  followed  by  yellowing  and 
browning;  (c)  dropping  of  the  foliage;  (d)  the  formation  of  spots  on  foliage, 
stems  or  roots;  (e}  perforation  of  the  foliage  commonly  called  "shot  hole;" 
(/)  variegation  of  the  foliage  commonly  called  mosaic;  (g)  the  "damping 
off"  or  dying  which  is  especially  common  on  seedling  plants;  (h)  the  blight 
or  dying  of  leaves,  twigs  or  stems;  (i)  the  dwarfing  of  parts;  (J)  the  increase 
in  size  of  parts;  (&)  formation  of  galls,  pustules  or  corky  growths;  (I) 
cankers  on  fruit,  stems  or  roots;  (m)  abnormal  fruits;  (n)  the  formation 
of  masses  of  small  shoots  called  "  witches'  brooms;"  (o)  the  curling  of  leaves; 
(p)  the  formation  of  leaf  rosettes;  (q)  abnormal  root  growths  commonly 
known  as  hairy  root;  (r)  exudations  of  gums,  resins,  etc.;  (s)  the  rotting  of 
fruit,  stems  or  other  parts ;  and  (/)  sunburn  of  fruits  and  foliages. 

Some  diseases  of  the  soil,  such  as  "damping  off,"  are  very  severe  in 
seed-beds  and  in  greenhouses,  and  can  be  controlled  by  sterilizing  the  soil. 
Diseases  that  occur  in  the  soil  in  fields  are  frequently  overcome  by  a  rota- 
tion of  crops,  by  improved  drainage  and  sometimes  by  stimulating  the 
plants  with  suitable  fertilizer. 

Many  diseases  are  controlled  by  spraying,  but  in  most  cases  spraying 
is  used  for  the  protection  of  plants  against  disease  and  not  for  curing  them; 
therefore,  it  is  a  kind  of  insurance  and  must  always  be  supplied  in  advance 
of  the  appearance  of  the  disease.  Spraying  cannot  be  conducted  in  a 
satisfactory  manner  unless  the  grower  is  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  disease 

239 


240 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


to  understand  when,  why  and  how  to  give  the  necessary  treatments.     In 

recent  years  it  has 

/  been  found  possible 

/  ^.  to  overcome  some 

/\  X  ^V         diseases  by  growing 

N-m  i  I      Plants  tnat  a1"6  dis- 

^%  JW  ^&       ease-resistant   and, 

tj    \        K^\  /^  i     tnor(^°rc>    (l°   n°t 

f         !\        ^1     ^f\  /m  neec^  treatments. 

A  ji'l  /?'  In   this    chap- 

1  jl  I     ter  only  the  most 

jjfc.. -^^  ^     }      common    and    im- 

portant plant  dis- 
eases in  the  United 
States  and  Canada 

BB  I^^HI  are  considered. 
Brief  descriptions 
and  condensed  di- 
rections for  treat- 
ment are  given. 

Farmers  should 
always  report  the 
presence  of  disease 
on  crops  to  the 
agricultural  experi- 
ment station  of  the 
state  in  which  they 
reside,  and  ask  ad- 
vice as  to  treat- 
ment. The  treat- 
ment of  some  dis- 
eases will  vary 
somewhat,  depend- 
ent upon  the  part 
of  the  country  in 
which  it  occurs. 

The  annual 
losses  occasioned  by 
insects  to  farm 

products  are  enor- 
ANTHRACNOSE  OF  BEAN.1 
rp,    ,  mous  and  demand 

The  brown  spots  occur  on  both  the  pods  and  plants.  They      fh     «tfpnt:nn  nf  Qn 
are  caused  by  spores  coming  in  contact  with  the  tender  plant 
tissues,  where  they  germinate  and  give  rise  to  serious  damage.      farmers. 


Cornell  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  255. 


DISEASES     OF     CROPS  241 

BEAN 

Anthracnose  (Colletotrichum  lindemuthianum  [Sacc.  and  Magn.],  B. 
and  C.). — This  disease  is  most  severe  on  the  wax  beans.  It  occurs  on 
the  pods,  causing  unsightly,  dark-colored,  sunken,  canker-like  spots.  It 
also  attacks  the  leaves  and  stems,  producing  similar  spots  and  frequently 
causing  the  death  of  the  plants.  The  fungus  is  carried  in  the  seed  and  one 
diseased  seed  in  a  thousand  is  enough  to  infect  a  large  number  of  growing 
plants. 

Treatment. — Select  clean  seed. 

Rust  (Uromyces  appendiculatus  [Pers.],  Link). — This  fungus  causes 
minute  rusty  spots  or  blisters  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  and 
occasionally  on  the  pods.  These  blisters  break  and  set  free  great  quan- 
tities of  the  reddish  or  rust-colored  spores.  It  is  not  so  severe  as  the 
anthracnose. 

Treatment. — Practice  clean  cultivation  and  burn  all  old  vines  in  the 
fall. 

Blight  (Pseudomonas  phaseoli,  Smith). — This  disease  attacks  leaves, 
stems  and  pods,  causing  large  watery  areas,  which  later  become  dry,  brown 
and  papery.  It  is  carried  from  year  to  year  in  the  seed. 

Treatment. — Use  seed  from  healthy  plants. 

Downy  Mildew  (Phytophihora  phaseoli,  Thaxt.). — This  disease  is 
unlike  the  mildew  on  the  fruits.  It  attacks  the  pods  of  lima  beans,  causing 
irregular  areas  of  dense,  woolly-white  growth.  It  also  occurs  on  other 
parts  of  the  plant,  causing  dwarfing  and  irregular  growths. 

Treatment. — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Leaf  Spot  (Phyllosticta  sp.}. — This  disease  is  most  severe  on  the  pole 
lima  beans.  It  causes  an  irregular  spotting  of  the  leaves  and  to  some 
extent  of  the  pods.  It  is  carried  from  season  to  season  in  the  seed. 

Treatment. — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

PEA 

Spot  (Ascochyta  pisi,  Lib.). — This  disease  causes  spots  on  stems, 
leaves  and  pods  which  are  most  conspicuous  on  the  latter.  On  the  pods 
they  are  circular,  sunken  with  dark  borders  and  pale  centers,  becoming 
pink  when  mature.  The  spots  on  the  leaves  are  oval  and  usually  show 
concentric  circles.  When  severe  on  the  stems  it  causes  wilting  and  death 
of  the  plant. 

Treatment. — Select  clean  seed  and  rotate  crops. 

BEET 

Leaf  Spot  (Cercospora  beticola,  Sacc.). — This  fungus  causes  the  very 
common  circular,  brown,  purple-bordered  spots  with  ash-colored  centers. 

Treatment. — Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  will  control  this  dis- 
ease, 


242 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Root  Rot  (Rhizoctonia  betce,  Kuhn). — This  disease  causes  the  outer 
leaves  to  turn  black  and  fall.     The  roots  crack  and  then  rot. 
Treatment. — Use  lime  and  rotate  crops. 

CABBAGE,   CAULIFLOWER,   TURNIP,   ETC. 

Black  Rot  (Pseudomonas  campestris,  Pammel). — This  is  a  bacterial 

disease  which  attacks 
all  of  the  above  and 
many  related  plants. 
It  starts  at  the  edges 
of  the  leaves,  causing 
a  blackening  of  the 
veins,  gradually  work- 
ing downward  to  the 
main  stalk  and  then 
upward  and  outward 
until  the  entire  plant  is 
affected.  The  affected 
leaves  become  yellow, 
wilt  and  then  dry.  In 
advanced  stages  the 
disease  is  accompanied 
by  other  rot  organisms 
which  cause  a  pro- 
nounced odor. 

Treatment. — When 
once  in  the  soil  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to 
eradicate.  Prevent  in- 
fection by  using  clean 
seed,  which  as  a  pre- 
cautionary measure 
should  be  soaked  for 
fifteen  minutes  in  for- 
maldehyde (1  part  for- 
malin to  30  parts 
water) . 

Club  Root  or  Fin- 
ger and  Toe  Disease 

(Plasmodiophora  brassicce,  Wor.). — This  very  destructive  and  well-known 
disease  attacks  cabbage  and  related  plants,  causing  unsightly  knotted 
roots.  The  diseased  plants  are  dwarfed  and  fail  to  develop  heads. 

Treatment. — Use  nothing  but  absolutely  clean  soil  in  the  seed-beds; 
use  lime  in  the  fields ;  rotate  crops. 


ENLARGED  ROOTS  OF  CABBAGE  CAUSED  BY  NEMATODES.] 


From  Farmers'  Bulletin  488,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


DISEASES     OF    CROPS  243 

CARROT 

Soft  Rot  (Bacillus  carotovorus,  Jones). — This  is  a  bacterial  disease 
which  causes  a  soft  rotting  of  the  roots.  It  also  attacks  turnips,  radishes, 
parsnips,  onions,  celery,  beets  and  many  other  plants.  The  only  satis- 
factory treatment  lies  in  the  rotation  of  crops. 

POTATO 

Late  Blight  or  Downy  Mildew  (Phytopthora  infestans  [Mont.],  De 
By.). — This  disease  usually  starts  near  the  tip  or  margin  of  the  leaf,  but 
causes  the  infected  area  to  die  and  blacken.  In  cool,  wet,  cloudy  weather 
it  spreads  very  rapidly  and  causes  an  offensive  odor.  The  diseased  tubers 
may  show  slightly  depressed,  dark-colored  areas  and  a  dirty  brown  color 
within.  The  disease  is  frequently  the  cause  of  heavy  losses  by  rotting. 

Treatment. — Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  beginning  when  the  plants 
are  about  six  inches  in  height  and  repeat  about  every  two  or  three  weeks 
throughout  the  growing  season. 

Early  Blight  (Alternaria  soZam'[E.  and  M.],  J.  and  G.). — This  disease 
appears  earlier  in  the  season  than  the  late  blight.  It  causes  brown,  brittle, 
irregular,  more  or  less  circular  leaf  spots  with  rather  definite  concentric 
circles.  These  spots  frequently  unite  and  the  plant  dies  very  much  as 
though  from  natural  causes. 

Treatment. — Same  as  for  late  blight. 

Wilt,  Stem  Rot  and  Dry  Rot  (Fusarium  oxysporum,  Schlecht). — The 
plant  assumes  an  unhealthy  appearance,  the  leaves  roil  and  curl  and  the 
plant  falls  and  dies  prematurely.  The  stems  are  partly  or  entirely  black  and 
dead  near  the  base  and  frequently  show  a  white  or  pink  mould.  When 
stems  are  cut  across  below  the  ground  they  show  discolorations  just  below 
the  surface.  This  field  form  of  the  disease  is  known  as  "  wilt "  or  "  stem  rot." 

In  storage  the  tubers  undergo  a  "dry  rot"  beginning  at  the  stem  end, 
which  causes  them  to  shrivel  and  become  light  in  weight.  When  cut 
across,  these  tubers  show  black  discolorations  just  below  the  surface.  The 
disease  can  be  carried  on  the  seed  and  will  also  persist  in  the  soil. 

Treatment. — Select  seed  potatoes  which  are  free  from  surface  cankers 
and  are  perfectly  white  when  cut.  When  the  soil  becomes  infected  use 
rotation  of  crops  for  from  three  to  five  years. 

Black  Leg  (Bacillus  phytophthorus,  Appel). — This  disease  causes  the 
plants  to  be  dwarfed,  erect,  pale  in  color  and  to  die  early.  The  stems 
become  brown  or  black  near  the  ground  and  the  disease  works  downward. 
It  is  carried  in  the  seed. 

Treatment. — Soak  the  seed  in  formaldehyde  or  corrosive  sublimate  as 
recommended  for  potato  scab. 

Scab  (Oospora  scabies,  Thaxt.). — This  well-known  disease  is  readily 
recognized  by  the  rough,  pitted  character  of  the  tubers  and  is  the  cause  of 
heavy  losses.  It  can  be  carried  on  the  seed  and  will  persist  in  the  soil  for 
several  years. 


244  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Treatment. — Soak  the  seed  potatoes  for  two  hours  in  formaldehyde 
(1  pound  in  30  gallons  of  water)  or  in  corrosive  sublimate  (4  ounces  in  30 
gallons  of  water)  for  one  and  one-half  hours.  When  the  land  becomes 
infected,  avoid  the  use  of  stable  manure  and  lime,  and  rotate  crops  for 
three  to  five  years. 

Little  Potato,  Rosette,  Stem  Rot,  Scurf  (Rhizoctonia  or  Corticium 
vagum,  B.  and  C.,  var.  solani,  Burt.). — This  disease  assumes  different  forms, 
varying  with  the  climatic  conditions,  soils  and  varieties.  In  very  severe 
cases  many  of  the  young  plants  fail  to  get  through  the  ground.  Many 
that  do  get  through  are  dwarfed  and  show-  a  peculiar  crinkling  of  the 
foliage.  The  part  of  the  stems  below  ground  shows  peculiar  brownish 
or  black  cankers. 

Treatment. — Soak  seed  potatoes  in  corrosive  sublimate  as  recom- 
mended for  scab. 

Bacterial  Wilt  (Bacillus  solanacearum,  Smith). — The  plants  wilt 
prematurely,  become  yellow,  then  black  and  dry.  This  disease  attacks 
tomatoes,  tobacco,  peppers  and  eggplants. 

Treatment. — Rotate  crops,  avoiding  those  that  are  susceptible. 

Tipburn. — This  disease  is  due  entirely  to  hot,  dry  weather.  It  causes 
the  leaves  to  dry  at  the  tips  and  margins,  roll  up  and  break  off. 

NOTE, — There  are  a  number  of  other  diseases  of  the  potato  which 
cannot  be  included  in  this  brief  discussion. 

PEANUT 

Peanuts  are  subject  to  several  foliage  and  root  diseases  of  more  or 
less  importance.  Growers  of  this  crop  should  consult  with  their  state 
agricultural  experiment  station. 

TOBACCO 

Granville  Tobacco  Wilt  (B.  solenacerarum}  Smith). — This  is  due  to  the 
same  organism  as  the  wilt  of  the  potato,  tomato,  peppers  and  eggplants. 
(See  Potato.) 

Mosaic,  Calico  or  Mottle  Top. — The  cause  of  this  disease  is  still  some- 
what uncertain.  The  leaves  of  the  diseased  plants  show  dark  and  light 
areas  and  frequently  irregular  thickenings  or  twist  ings. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  diseased  plants.  Be  careful  not  to  touch 
healthy  plants  while  working  with  the  diseased  plants.  The  disease  can 
be  communicated  by  contact. 

Leaf  Spots. — There  are  a  number  of  leaf  spot  diseases  and  also  mildews 
which  cause  more  or  less  trouble. 

Root  Rots  (Thielavia  basicola,  Zopf.). — This  disease  is  a  rotting  of 
the  roots,  accompanied  by  the  production  of  numerous  new  roots.  The 
affected  plants  are  dwarfed  and  frequently  killed. 

Treatment. — Sterilize  seed-bed.  Rotate  crops.  Avoid  liming  and 
acid  fertilizers, 


DISEASES     OF    CROPS 


245 


CORN 

Smut  (Ustilago  Zeae  [Beckm.],  Ung.). — Corn  smut  on  ear,  tassel  and 

leaves  is  so  common 
that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  give  a  description. 
It  is  frequently  very 
destructive,  especially 
on  sweet  corn. 

Treatment.—  The 
treatment  will  depend 
largely  on  the  severity 
of  the  disease.  Do 
not  use  manure  from 
animals  which  have 
been  fed  on  smutted 
cornf odder.  Rotate 
crops.  If  growing 
sweet  corn  on  the 
same  land  year  after 
year,  it  is  advisable  to 
remove  the  smut  balls 
as  soon  as  they  appear. 

WHEAT 

Rust  (Puccinia 
graminis,  Pers.,  P. 
ruhigovera,  Wint . ) . — 
This  crop  is  affected 
with  the  familiar  rust 
diseases,  all  of  which 
appear  to  be  very 
much  the  same  to  the 
inexperienced  student 
of  plant  diseases. 
They  are  very  difficult 
to  control  and  in  fact 
comparatively  little 
effort  is  made  to  pro- 
tect the  crop.  Re- 
used and  if  possible  spring  wheat  should  be 


SMUT  OF  CoRN.1 
Showing  a  young  smutted  ear. 


sistant  varieties  should  b 
sown  early. 

Loose  Smut  (Ustilago  tritici  [Pers.],  Jens.)- — This  very  common  and 
familiar  disease  is  the  cause  of  much  greater  loss  than  the  growers  realize. 

Treatment. — It  can  be  controlled  by  treating  with  hot  water.      Clean 

1From  Farmers'  Bulletin  507,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


LOOSE  SMUT  OF  WHEAT.1 

Showing  four  smutted  heads  of  various  stages  of  development,  and  for  comparison 

a  sound  wheat  head. 


^rom  Farmers'  Bulletin  507,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


(246) 


DISEASES     OF    CROPS 


247 


the  seed  and  soak  for  five  to  seven  hours  in  water  at  a  temperature  of  63° 
to  72°  F.    Then  put  into  loose  bags  or  wire  baskets  holding  about  one  peck 
each  and  plunge  into  water  ranging  between  126°  and  129°  F.  for  ten  min- 
utes.    Care  should  be  taken 
to   keep   the   water  at   the 
proper   temperature   and  to 
keep  the  gram  well  stirred. 
The  seed  can  be  dried  on  a 
barn  floor  or  canvas. 

Stinking  Smut  or  Bunt 
(Tilletia  fcetans  [B.  and  C.], 
Trel.). — This  disease  is  very 
different  from  the  loose  smut. 
The  diseased  grains  are  shriv- 
eled, greenish  tinted,  filled 
with  a  mass  of  black  spores 
and  have  a  disagreeable 
odor.  Badly  infested  crops 
are  worthless  for  milling  or 
for  stock  feed. 

Treatment—Put  one 
pound  of  formaldehyde  in 
fifty  gallons  of  water  and 
BL  sprinkle  on  the  grains  at  the 
rate  of  one  gallon  to  each 
bushel  of  grain.  Shovel  the 
wet  grain  into  a  pile  and 
cover  with  canvas  or  burlap 
for  six  to  twelve  hours. 
Spread  and  dry.  (See  Chap- 
ter on  Wheat.) 

OATS 

Rust  (Puccinia  coronata, 
Cda.). — Also  the  two  species 
found  on  wheat. 

Treatment. — Same  as  for 
wheat. 

Smut  (Ustilago  avena  [Per.],  Jens.). — Very  similar  in  appearance  to  the 
loose  smut  of  wheat. 

Treatment. — Formaldehyde  treatment  same  as  for  stinking  smut  of 
wheat. 


SMUT  OP  OATS.1 

Showing  a  smutted  head,  and  for  comparison 
a  sound  oat  head. 


1From  Farmers'  Bulletin  507,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 


248 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


SUGAR  CANE 

Red  Rot  (Colletotrichum  falcatum,  Went.). — This  is  one  of  the  most 
destructive  diseases  of  the  sugar  cane.  Ifc  causes  the  plants  to  wilt  and 
finally  a  yellowing  of  the  upper  leaves.  This  is  followed  by  a  blackening 
and  dying  of  the  eyes  and  a  gradual  discoloration  on  the  outside  extending 
from  the  nodes.  Upon  splitting  the  canes,  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  are 
found  to  show  reddish  discolor- 
ations. 

Rind  Disease  (Trichosphae- 
ria  sacchari,  Massee). — Although 
this  disease  is  not  so  severe  as  the 
preceding  one,  it  causes  a  prema- 
ture yellowing  and  dying  of  the 
plants.  The  joints  become  dis- 
colored and  shrunken  and  the 
entire  plant  loses  weight.  Finally, 
small  black  eruptions  which  are 
thread-like  in  appearance  appear 
over  the  canes. 

The  Pineapple  Disease 
(Thielaviopsis  ethacetica,  Went.). 
— This  disease  is  of  comparatively 
little  importance,  but  it  some- 
times attacks  the  cuttings  which 
have  been  prepared  for  planting 
and  prevents  their  growth  or 
causes  weak,  unhealthy  plants.  • 

Treatment. — The  most  satis- 
factory treatment  for  these  three 
diseases  is  care  in  selection  of 
good  healthy  plants  for  cutting 
and  the  treatment  of  these  cut- 
tings with  Bordeaux  mixture 


A  YOUNG  COTTON  PLANT  AFFECTED  BY 
COTTON  WiLT.1 


before  planting. 

When  the  grower  has  any 
reason  to  suspect  the  appearance 

of  these  or  other  diseases,  he  should  consult  with  the  plant  pathologist  of 
the  experiment  station  in  the  state  in  which  he  is  located. 

Other  Diseases. — There  are  a  number  of  other  diseases  of  minor 
importance. 

COTTON 

Anthracnose   (Golmerella  gossypii,  Southworth  Edg.). — This  disease 
attacks  stem,  boll  and  leaves,  causing  dull,  reddish-brown  spots  which  are 

lCourtesy  of  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


DISEASES     OF     CROPS  249 

slightly  depressed.  In  advanced  stages  these  spots  are  covered  with  a 
dirty  gray  or  pinkish  powder  which  is  the  spores  of  the  fungus.  This 
disease  is  carried  in  the  seed  and  is  the  cause  of  heavy  losses. 

Damping  Off,  Sore  Shin,  Seeding  Rot. — These  oliseases  may  be  due  to 
any  one  of  several  organisms.  They  attack  the  young  plants  at  or  just 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  causing  them  to  rot  off  and  die.  They  are 
sometimes  the  cause  of  heavy  losses. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  diseases  of  the  cotton.  The  most  satis- 
factory remedy  for  most  diseases  is  the  selection  of  seed  from  healthy 
plants.  Where  growers  experience  much  difficulty,  they  should  consult 
with  the  authorities  at  the  state  agricultural  experiment  station. 

FLAX 

Wilt  (Fusarium  lini,  Bolley). — This  is  one  of  the  most  severe  diseases 
of  the  flax.  Sometimes  the  organism  causing  this  disease  is  so  abundant 
in  the  soil  that  it  leads  to  the  term  "  flax  sick  soil."  The  new  plants  affected 
with  this  disease  wilt  and  die  and  fields  are  very  frequently  seen  in  which 
there  are  large  bare  spots  due  to  the  ravages  of  this  disease.  When  the 
older  plants  are  attacked  they  wilt  and  gradually  turn  yellow  and  die. 

The  grower  who  has  any  difficulty  with  this  or  other  diseases  should 
consult  with  the  state  agricultural  experiment  station. 

REFERENCES 

1  Diseases  of  Tropical  Plants."     Cooke. 
'Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants."     Duggar. 
'Spraying  of  Plants."     Lodeman. 
'Minnesota  Plant  Diseases."     Freeman. 
'Diseases  of  Economic  Plants."     Stevens  and  Hall. 

Michigan  Expt.  Station  (Technical  Bulletin  20).     "Control  of  Root  Knot  Nematode." 
Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  265.     "Cob  Rot  of  Corn." 
Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  136.     "Collar-Blight  and  Related  Forms  of  Fire 

Blight." 

Washington  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  126.     "Bunt  or  Smut  of  Wheat." 
Canadian  Dept,  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  229.     "Smuts  and  Rusts." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletins: 

64.     "Potato  Wilt  and  Other  Diseases." 

203.     "Field  Studies  of  the  Crown  Gall  of  Sugar  Beets." 

216.     "Rust  of  Gram  in  United  States"  (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry). 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

333.      'Cotton  Wilt," 

507.      'The  Smuts  of  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley  and  Corn." 

544.      'Potato  Tuber  Diseases." 

555.      'Cotton  Anthracnose  and  Its  Control." 

618.      'Leaf  Spot :   A  Disease  of  the  Sugar  Beet." 

625.      'Cotton  Wilt  and  Root  Knot." 

648.      'The  Control  of  Root  Knot," 


CHAPTER  20 

INSECT  PESTS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

BY  W.  B.  WOOD 

Scientific  Assistant,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Insects  are,  without  doubt,  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  farmer,  for  they 
destroy  the  crops  of  field  and  garden  and  render  the  fruit  on  the  trees  unfit 
for  use;  they  injure  the  domestic  animals  by  constant  irritation,  causing 
them  to  lose  weight  and  even  to  die.  Stored  grains,  tobacco  and  other 
farm  products  also  suffer  from  their  attacks. 

After  studying  their  life  histories  and  habits,  methods  of  control  have 
been  devised  by  which  they  can  be  combated  with  a  reasonable  amount  of 
success.  Many  species  can  be  held  in  absolute  control  by  thorough  and 
timely  applications  of  the  proper  remedies,  while  others  are  only  partially 
held  in  check. 

In  order  to  intelligently  apply  a  treatment  for  the  control  of  an  insect, 
something  of  its  habits  must  be  known,  especially  in  regard  to  its  manner 
of  feeding.  Most  of  the  important  pests  fall  within  two  great  groups, 
namely,  biting  or  chewing  insects  and  sucking  insects,  depending  on 
whether  the  mouth  parts  are  chisel  or  pincher-like  in  the  first  class,  or 
beak-like  and  made  for  piercing  and  sucking  in  the  second  class.  A 
number  of  these  pests  will  fall  in  certain  special  groups  which  require  a 
definite  treatment,  indicated  by  their  manner  of  living  or  by  the  injury  they 
do.  Some  of  these  special  classes  are  internal  feeders,  as  boring  insects, 
subterranean  insects  and  insects  affecting  stored  products. 

The  external  feeders,  which  have  biting  mouth  parts,  usually  feed  upon 
plants  by  gnawing  out  small  pieces  of  the  plant  tissue  which  are  swallowed. 
This  group  includes  the  larvae  or  caterpillars  of  moths  and  butterflies,  the 
larvae  of  beetles  and  the  adults,  grasshoppers  and  crickets,  and  the  larvae  of 
some  species  of  Hymenoptera  or  the  wasp  group.  Such  insects  may  usually 
be  controlled  by  applying  a  poison  to  the  plant,  either  as  a  fine  spray  or  as 
a  powder  dusted  or  blown  over  its  surface.  The  arsenicals  have  been  found 
to  be  the  best  remedy  for  this  group. 

The  sucking  insects  feed  by  piercing  the  skin  or  epidermis  of  plants 
with  their  sharp  beaks  and  sucking  the  sap.  This  group  of  insects  is 
represented  by  the  tree  bugs  or  Hemiptera,  to  which  order  belong  the 
squash  bug,  scale  insects,  plant  lice  and  leaf  hoppers.  It  is  evident  that  a 
stomach  poison  on  the  surface  of  the  plant  would  not  affect  insects  of  this 
class,  so  it  is  necessary  to  use  what  is  known  as  a  contact  insecticide,  which 
should  be  applied  as  a  spray  or  wash  directly  to  the  insect's  body.  Such 

(250) 


INSECT    PESTS    AND    THEIR    CONTROL     251 

remedies  kill  by  their  suffocating  or  corrosive  action.  The  most  common 
of  these  insecticides  are  nicotine  solutions,  kerosene  or  oil  emulsions,  lime- 
sulphur  wash  and  fish-oil  soap. 

In  the  following  pages  will  be  found  listed  the  principal  insect  pests  of 
farm  crops  under  the  class  of  crops  to  which  they  are  most  injurious.  Only 
a  very  brief  description  of  each  insect  can  be  given,  and  in  most  cases  noth- 
ing of  their  life  histories,  in  the  limited  space  devoted  to  the  subject.  The 
treatments  which  have  given  the  best  results  in  each  individual  case  are 
indicated  briefly  and  reference  is  made  to  publications  which  give  a  more 
extended  account  of  the  insects.  The  abbreviations  which  are  used  in  the 
references  are  as  follows: 

Bur.  Ent.  Bull. — U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Entomology  Bulletin. 
Bur.  Ent.  Cir. — U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Entomology  Circular. 
Farm.  Bull. — U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin. 
Dept.  Bull. — U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin. 

GENERAL  CROP  INSECTS 

Caterpillars  (leaf-eating). — Many  plants  are  attacked  by  caterpillars 
which  feed  upon  the  leaves.  These  worms  are  the  larvae  of  Lepidopterous 
insects,  or  moths  and  butterflies. 

Treatment. — Spray  with  an  arsenical,  preferably  arsenate  of  lead,  or 
dust  with  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green.  If  the  spray  gathers 
in  drops  and  does  not  adhere  well  to  the  surface  of  the  leaves,  use  a  resin 
fish-oil  soap  sticker. 

Cutworms. — Various  species  of  the  family  Noctuidce,  usually  feeding 
at  night  upon  the  roots,  crowns  or  foliage  of  plants.  The  worms  may  be 
found  in  daytime  lying  curled  up  in  ground  about  an  inch  below  surface. 

Treatment. — Broadcast  poison  bran  mash  about  the  garden  in  the 
spring  just  before  the  plants  come  up.  Make  other  applications  later  if 
the  cutworms  are  still  found.  Cultivate  the  ground  thoroughly  in  late 
summer  and  early  in  the  spring  to  prevent  the  growth  of  grasses  and  weeds, 
thus  starving  out  worms  if  present. 

Grasshoppers  or  Locusts. — A  number  of  species  feed  on  corn,  wheat, 
sorghum  and  other  field  crops,  also  on  many  garden  crops  and  at  times  on 
fruit  trees. 

Treatment. — Cultivate  the  fields  and  stony  fence  rows  in  the  fall  to 
break  up  the  egg  masses  deposited  one  to  two  inches  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Broadcast  Criddle  mixture  or  poison  bran  mash  flavored  with 
juice  of  orange  or  lemon  in  fields  where  grasshoppers  are  plentiful. 

Leaf  Beetles  (Chrysomelidce). — Crops  of  many  kinds  are  injured  by 
beetles  which  feed  upon  the  leaves  as  adults  and  sometimes  as  larvae. 

Treatment. — Spray  or  dust  the  affected  plants  with  arsenicals. 

Plant  Lice  (Aphididoe). — Many  species  of  plant  lice  are  found  attacking 
field,  garden  and  orchard  crops.  They  feed  by  sucking  the  juices  of  the 
host  plant  and  cannot  be  controlled  by  a  poison  spray. 


252  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Treatment. — Use  sprays  of  nicotine  or  tobacco  extract,  kerosene 
emulsion  (5  to  10  per  cent  strength)  or  fish-oil  soap  just  after  the  aphids 
appear  and  at  such  other  times  as  may  be  necessary.  Spray  thoroughly, 
being  sure  to  wet  all  plant  lice.  If  spray  does  not  adhere  to  the  bodies  of 
insects,  add  2  or  3  pounds  of  laundry  soap  to  50  gallons  of  spray  solution, 
or  preferably  an  equal  amount  of  resin  fish-oil  soap  as  a  sticker.  For  under- 
ground forms  practice  rotation  of  crops  or  use  soil  fumigants. 

White  Grubs  (Lachnosterna  spp.). — White  grubs  or  grubworms  are 
the  larvse  of  the  common  brown  beetles  known  as  May  beetles  or  June 
bugs,  commonly  seen  around  lights  and  on  the  screens  in  the  spring  and 
summer.  Their  natural  breeding  place  is  grass  lands,  but  they  are  found 
in  fields  and  gardens  feeding  upon  the  roots  of  many  plants. 

Treatment. — No  successful  treatment  is  known.  Practice  crop  rotation 
when  necessary.  Fall  plowing  will  be  of  some  benefit.  Do  not  plant 
crops  liable  to  be  injured,  as  strawberries,  on  recently  broken  sod  land. 

Wire  Worms  (Elateridce) . — Slender,  brown,  hard,  shining  larvse,  Y^ 
inch  to  1J/2  inches  long,  body  divided  into  several  segments  which  show 
plainly  three  pairs  of  small  legs  near  front  end  of  body.  Their  natural 
breeding  place  is  grass  lands,  but  they  feed  on  or  in  the  roots  of  many 
garden  and  field  crops.  Two  years  or  more  are  required  for  development. 

Treatment. — No  satisfactory  treatment  has  been  found.  Rotation  of 
crops,  preventing  ground  from  remaining  long  in  grass,  and  late  fall  plow- 
ing followed  by  repeated  harrowing  for  a  month  or  two  are  the  best  means 
of  preventing  their 'increase.  Seeds  might  be  protected  by  the  use  of  some 
substance  as  a  repellent  which  would  not  injure  germination. 

GENERAL   CROP   INSECTS 

The  Army  Worm  (Leucania  unipuncta,  Haworth) . — In  general  appear- 
ance it  resembles  cutworms.  About  1^  inches  long,  dark  in  color,  with 
three  yellowish  stripes  down  the  back.  The  adult  insect  is  a  dull  brown 
moth,  often  seen  about  lights  in  the  spring.  The  worm  feeds  naturally  on 
wild  grasses,  but  when  it  is  abundant  marches  across  fields,  destroying 
many  crops,  including  corn,  wheat,  oats  and  related  crops,  as  well  as  many 
truck  crops. 

Treatment. — The  march  of  the  worms  to  uninfested  fields  may  be 
checked  by  a  deep  dust  furrow  through  which  a  log  is  dragged  occasionally 
to  crush  the  worms  and  to  maintain  a  thick  coat  of  dust  on  the  sides. 
Scattering  poison  bran  mash  through  infested  fields  will  often  prove  very 
effective.  Late  fall  plowing  and  cultivating  will  help  in  destroying  over- 
wintering worms. 

The  Alfalfa  Leaf  Weevil  (Phytonomus  posticus,  Fab.). — This  insect, 
which  has  been  accidentally  introduced  into  the  United  States  from  Europe, 
now  threatens  the  alfalfa  industry  of  the  country.  From  a  small  field 
near  Salt  Lake,  where  it  was  first  found,  it  has  spread  through  the  surround- 
ing country  until  it  has  gone  as  far  as  Wyoming  and  Idaho.  In  the  spring 


INSECT    PESTS    AND    THEIR    CONTROL     253 


the  adult  insect  punctures  the  stems  of  the  plants  as  they  are  coming 
up,  and  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  wounds.  The  grubs  hatch  and  feed  upon 
the  tender  leaves  until  they  are  fully  developed.  Transformation  then 
takes  place  and  the  adult  beetle  begins  to  de- 
stroy the  foliage. 

Treatment. — Breaking  up  the  ground  in  the 
spring  with  a  disk  harrow  to  stimulate  a  rapid 
growth  has  been  found  to  be  beneficial.  Clean 
up  all  trash  and  rubbish  which  might  form  hiding 
places  for  the  insect.  Immediately  after  first 
cutting  use  a  spike-tooth  harrow,  followed  closely 
by  a  brush  drag  to  knock  off  and  kill  the  grubs. 
Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  112;  Utah  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  110. 
The  Chinch  Bug  (Blissus  leucopterus,  Say.). — 
Throughout  the  Middle  states  this  is  the  worst 
enemy  of  all  kinds  of  grains.  It  hibernates  for 
the  most  part  in  clumps  of  grass,  but  may  be 
found  hi  weeds  and  rubbish  along  fence  rows. 
The  bug  injures  the  plant  by  sucking  the  sap 
from  the  stalks. 

Treatment. — Concerted  action  by  the  farmers  in  a  large  area,  in  burn- 
ing the  bunch  grass  late  in  the  fall  or  hi  early  winter,  is  the  best  means  of 
control.  The  grass  should  be  burned  close  to  the  ground  when  it  is  per- 


CHINCH  BUG 
(Blissus  leucopterus).1 

Adult  of  long- winged  form, 
much  enlarged. 


CHINCH  BUG  (Blissus  leucopterus). ,l 
Adults  of  short- winged  form,  much  enlarged. 

fectly  dry,  thus  destroying  many  of  the  insects  and  leaving  others  unpro- 
tected against  the  storms  of  winter.     When  bugs  are  migrating  from  small 
grains  to  corn  or  other  crops  in  summer,  they  may  be  stopped  by  dusty 
ditches  with  post  holes  in  bottom,  by  dust  ridges  or  coal  tar  barriers. 
Farm.  Bull.  657. 

i  Bur.  Eat.  Cir.  H3, 


254 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Clover  Mite  (Bryobia  pratensis,  Garm.). — A  common  red  mite  on 
many  plants,  including  clover,  alfalfa  and  a  number  of  varieties  of  fruit. 

Treatment. — Dust  the  plants  with  sulphur  and  lime  at  rate  of  1-4,  or 
spray  with  either  10  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion  or  sulphur  in  water,  1 
pound  to  4  gallons.    Destroy  eggs  on  fruit  trees  in  winter  with  20  per  cent 
kerosene  emulsion  or  with  lime-sulphur. 
Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  158. 

Clover  Root  Borer  (Hylastinus  obscurus,  Marsham) . — The  beetle  win- 
ters over  in  clover  roots;  emerges 
in  the  spring  and  lays  eggs  hi 
the  larger  roots.  The  grubs,  on 
hatching,  bore  through  central 
part,  destroying  plants. 

Treatment. — Plow  the  fields 
after  haying,  allowing  the  roots 
to  dry.  Pasturing  checks  the 
injury.  Infested  field  should  not 
be  allowed  to  stand  over  the  sec- 
ond season. 

Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  119. 

Corn  Ear  Worm  (Heliothis 
obsoleta,  Fab.). — This  insect  is 
also  known  as  the  cotton  boll 
worm,  the  tobacco  bud  worm  or 
the  tomato  fruit  worm.  It  has 
a  long  list  of  other  food  plants, 
but  on  many  causes  no  serious 
injury.  On  corn  the  eggs  are 
laid  by  the  moths  upon  the  silk. 
The  larvae  upon  hatching  enter 
the  ear  and  begin  to  feed  on 
the  immature  grains.  Cotton  is 
not  seriously  attacked  until  the 
corn  silks  are  drying  up,  as  corn 
is  much  preferred  by  the  worms. 
The  adults  lay  their  eggs  upon  the 

cotton  leaves  and  the  larvae,  after  feeding  for  a  short  time  upon  the  foliage, 
enter  the  bolls.  They  attack  tobacco  by  eating  into  the  buds,  and  tomatoes 
are  injured  by  attacks  upon  the  fruit. 

Treatment. — For  all  crops  the  injury  is  materially  lessened  by  late 
fall  plowing  and  cultivation  which  crushes  many  pupae  in  the  soil  and 
exposes  others  to  the  winter.  On  cotton  the  insect  may  be  well  controlled 
by  two  applications  of  an  arsenical  dust  or  spray  at  the  time  the  eggs  are 
hatching.  Tobacco  may  be  protected  by  dropping  into  the  buds  a  little 

!Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  158. 


CLOVER  MITE  (Bryobia  pr&tensis).1 
Enlarged;  natural  size  shown  by  line  at  right. 


INSECT     PESTS     AND     THEIR     CONTROL     255 


corn  meal,  poisoned  with  powdered  arsenate  of  lead,  using  2  or  3  spoonfuls 
to  a  quart  of  meal.     Early  maturing  varieties  of  corn  or  cotton  will  not 
be  so  seriously  injured  as  the  later  kinds. 
Farm.  Bull.  290;  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  50. 

The  Corn  Root  Aphis  (Aphis  maidi-radicis,  Forbes). — A  bluish-green 
plant  louse  found  on  the  roots  of  corn,  broom  corn,  sorghum  and  on  several 
weeds.  It  weakens  the  plant,  causing  it  to  be  stunted  and  poorly  nour- 
ished. 

Treatment. — One  year  rotation  to  other  crops  than  corn,  clean  cultiva- 
tion and  liberal  use  of  fertilizers,  winter  plowing  to  break  up  nests  of  ants 
where  aphis  eggs  are  stored. 

Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  86;  Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  85,  Pt.  6. 

Cotton  Boll  Worm  (Heliothis  obsoleta,  Fab.).— 
See  Corn  Ear  Worm. 

Cotton  Worm  (Alabama  argillacea,  Hbn.). — A 
dark-greenish  caterpillar,  striped  with  black,  the 
larva  of  a  grayish-brown  moth  marked  on  the  fore 
wings  with  irregular  darker  bands.  They  feed  on 
the  under  side  of  leaves  when  young,  later  feeding 
on  the  entire  leaf  and  when  abundant  on  buds  and 
tender  stalks.  Adults  make  strong  flights,  going  as 
far  north  as  Canada.  They  feed  at  times  on  ripe 
fruit,  which  they  are  able  to  puncture  with  strong 
mouth  parts. 

Treatment. — Dust  the  plants  with  powdered  ar- 
senate of  lead  when  the  worms  appear. 
Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  153. 


CLOVER  ROOT  BORER  (Hylastinus  obscurus).1 

1 — Adult  beetle,  natural  size  at  right.    2 — Larva  or  grub,  much  enlarged. 
3 — Showing  work  of  the  borer. 


*  Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  119. 


COTTON  WORM  (Alabama  argillaced)  .l 
Stages  and  work. 


!Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  153. 

(256) 


INSECT    PESTS    AND    THEIR    CONTROL     257 


FALL  ARMY  WORM 
(Laphygma  frugiperda).1 

A — Moth,  plain  gray  form.  B — Fore 
wing  of  prodenia-like  form.  C — Larva 
extended.  D — Abdominal  segment  of 
larva,  lateral  view;  twice  natural  size. 
E — Pupa,  lateral  view. 

army  worm,   but  with    different 
plants,  including  many 
forage  and  truck  crops. 

Treatment. — P  r  a  c  - 
tice  fall  plowing  to  break 
up  the  pupae  cells  in  the 
ground.  Scatter  poison 
bran  mash  when  the  cat- 
erpillars appear,  or  spray 
or  dust  with  arsenicals. 
Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  29. 

The  Green  Bug,  or 
Spring  Grain  Aphis  (Tox- 
opteragraminum,  Rond.). 
— A  small  green  plant 
louse  which  attacks  oats, 
wheat,  barley  and  other 
grains.  It  appears  very 
early  in  the  spring. 

Treatment. — No  sat- 
isfactory method  of  con- 
trol is  known.  Attacks 
may  be  partially  pre- 

ifiu.  ED*.  Boll  29.         *  Farm.  Boll.  640. 


The  Cotton  Red  Spider  (Tetran- 
ychus  bimaculatus,  Harvey) . — This 
small  red  mite  is  common  on  cot- 
ton and  on  several  other  plants,  es- 
pecially poke  weed  and  violet.  It 
causes  the  leaves  of  cotton  to  turn 
red  and  fall  off.  It  kills  plants  if 
abundant. 

Treatment. — Prevent  the  mites 
from  starting  on  the  cotton  by  clean 
culture,  being  sure  to  eradicate  all 
pokeweed  and  violets  near  the  fields. 
If  found  in  cotton  fields,  spray  the 
affected  plants  with  potassium  sul- 
phide 3  pounds  and  water  100  gallons; 
make  two  applications  one  week 
apart. 

Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  172. 

The  Fall  Army  Worm  (Laphygma 
frugiperda,  S.  and  A.). — In  general 
appearance  is  similar  to  the  common 
markings.  It  has  wide  range  of  food 


HESSIAN  FLY  (Mayetiola  destructor).* 
Adult  female,  much  enlarged. 


GREEN  BUG,  OR  SPRING  GRAIN  APHIS  (Toxoptera  graminum).1 

Wheat  plant  showing  winged  and  wingless  viviparous  females  with  their 
young  clustered  on  leaves,  and  a  few  parasitized  individuals  on  lower  leaves. 
About  natural  size. 


»  Bur.  But.  Bull.  110. 

(258) 


INSECT    PESTS     AND     THEIR     CONTROL     259 


SOUTHERN  CORN  ROOT  WORM 
(Diabrotica  duodecimpunctatd).1 

A— Beetle.  B— Egg.       C— Larva.       D— Anal 

segment  of  larva.  E — Work  of  larva  at  base  of  corn 

stalk.     F — Pupa.  All  much  enlarged  except  E,  which 
is  reduced. 


two  weeks  after  usual  time, 
vent  most  of  usual  injury. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Cir.  51,  Office  of 
Secretary;  Farm.  Bull.  640. 


vented  by  late  planting 
and  by  the  destruction  of 
volunteer  wheat  and  oats 
in  the  fall. 

Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  110. 

The  Hessian  Fly 

(Mayetiola  destructor, 
Say.) . — This  small  two- 
winged  fly  is  one  of  the 
most  destructive  insects 
of  growing  wheat,  causing 
the  plants  to  be  stunted 
and  to  break  down  near 
harvest  time. 

Treatment. — Burn  the 
stubble  or  plow  it  under 
as  soon  after  harvest  as 
possible.  Destroy  all 
volunteer  wheat  just  be- 
fore sowing.  Delay  the 
sowing  until  ten  days  or 
The  two  latter  precautions  should  pre- 


A  B 

COTTON  BOLL  WEEVIL 
(Anthonomus  grandis).2 

A — Beetle,  from  above.     B — Same  from 
side.     About  five  times  natural  size. 


TOBACCO  FLEA  BEETLE 
(Epitrix  parvula).3 

A — Adult  beetle.  B — Larva,  side 
view.  C — Head  of  larva.  D — Hind  leg 
of  same.  E — Anal  segment  of  same. 
F— Pupa.  A,  B,  F— Enlarged  about  fif- 
teen times.  C,  D,  E — More  enlarged. 


» Bur.  Ent.  Bull.  43. 


Farm.  Bull.  344. 


1  Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  123. 


260 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Mexican  Cotton  Boll  Weevil  (Anthonomus  grandis,  Boh.). — No  pest  of 
cotton  has  caused  so  much  injury  as  this  small  brown  beetle.  Both  the 
adult  insects  and  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  squares  and  the  bolls,  injuring 
the  fiber. 

Treatment. — Clean  up  and  destroy  all  stalks,  dead  bolls  and  crop  rem- 
nants as  soon  as  cotton  is  picked,  either  by  burning  or  burying.  Plow 
under  or  burn  in  the  fall  and  winter  all  trash  in  neighboring  fields  and 


SOUTHERN  TOBACCO  HORN  WORM  (Phlegethontius  sexto).1 
A — Adult.     B — Larva.     C — Pupa. 

hedgerows  where  the  insect  might  hibernate.      Prepare  the  land  early* 
plant  early  and  fertilize  heavily  to  secure  an  early  crop. 
Farm.  Bull.  344,  Senate  Document  No.  305,  62d  Congress. 

Spring  Grain  Aphis  (Toxoptera  graminum,  Rond.). — See  Green  Bug. 

Southern  Corn  Root  Worm,  or  Bud  Worm  (Diabrotica  duodecimpunc- 
tata,  Oliv.). — Greenish-yellow  beetle  marked  on  the  back  with  twelve 
black  spots.  Feeds  on  a  variety  of  plants.  Larva  or  grub  feeds  on  roots 
of  corn  after  boring  into  roots  and  stem. 

Treatment. — No  satisfactory  insecticidal  treatment  is  known.  The 
worst  of  the  injury  may  be  prevented  in  Southern  states  by  planting  about 

iBur.  Ent.  Cir.  123. 
62 


WESTERN  CORN  ROOT  WORM  (Diabrotica  longicornis).1 

1 — Adult,  or  beetle;  a,  claw  of  hind  leg;  much  enlarged.    2 — Larva, 
or  worm,  much  enlarged.     3 — Egg,  highly  magnified. 


WHEAT  JOINT  WORM  (Isosoma  tritici).2 

L — Adult  of  the  joint  worm  much  enlarged.     2 — One      . 
effect  of  the  joint  worm  in  wheat  straw. 


D«p*.  Bull.  8.  «  Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  66. 


(.261 ) 


262 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


three  weeks  later  than  usual  or  after  most  of  the  first  brood  eggs  have 
been  deposited. 

Dept.  Bull.  No.  5. 

Tobacco  Flea  Beetle  (Epitrix  parvula,  Fab.). — A  small  dark-colored 
beetle,  eating  holes  in  the  leaves  of  tobacco.     The 
beetle  is  a  very  active  jumper  and  cannot  be  readily 
captured. 

Treatment. — Apply  arsenicals  by  spraying  or  as 
dust  when  the  injury  is  first  noticed  and  again  a 
few  days  later,  if  the  beetles  are  still  present. 
Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  123;  Year-Book  1910,  pp.  281-296. 
Tobacco  Worms,  or  Horn  Worms  (Phlegeihontius 
quinqwmaculata,'H.a,w.,aiidP.  sexta,  Johan.). — These 
two  pests  are  the  most  destructive  of  the  tobacco 
insects.    They  feed  on  the  leaves  and  buds. 

Treatment. — Hand  picking  or  the  use  of  arsen- 
icals will  prevent  serious  injury. 

Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  123;  Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  173 
Western  Corn  Root  Worm  (Diabrotica  longicor- 
nis,  Say.). — A  yellowish  green  beetle,  the  larva  of 
which  feeds  on  the  roots  of  corn.     There  is  only 
one  generation  of  the  insect  each  year. 

Treatment. — The  only  successful  way  of  com- 
bating the  pest  is  to  rotate  crops  from  corn  to  one 
of  the  small  grains. 
Dept.  Bull.  No.  8. 

Wheat  Joint  Worm  (Isosoma  tritici,  Fitch). — 
Most  of  the  injury  from  this  insect  has  been  found 
in  the  wheat-growing  regions  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  The  adult  is  a  small  black  insect 
somewhat  resembling  a  small  winged  ant.  Eggs 
are  laid  in  the  straw  of  growing  wheat  after  several 
joints  have  been  formed.  The  larvae  develop  in 
the  joints  and  emerge  in  the  following  spring. 

Treatment. — Burn  or  plow  under  all  stubble  in  the  fall.     Burn  all 
outstanding  straw  in  spring.     Do  not  scatter  green  manure  in  fields  to  be 
planted  in  wheat  in  spring  if  infested  straw  was  used  for  bedding.    Fertilize 
liberally.     Practice  rotation  of  crops. 
Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  66. 

Wheat  Straw  Worm  (Isosoma  grande,  Riley). — West  of  the  Mississippi 
River  this  insect  is  often  a  very  serious  enemy  of  wheat.  The  larva  works 
inside  the  young  shoots  early  in  the  spring  and  the  later  generation  in 
straw. 

Treatment. — Injury  can  be  largely  prevented  by  a  rotation  of  crops 
*  Bur,  Eat,  Cir,  106, 


LARVA  OF  Isosoma 
grande  IN  WHEAT 

STRAW.1 


INSECT    PESTS    AND    THEIR    CONTROL     263 

according  to  Prof.  F.  M.  Webster.     Wheat  should  not  be  planted  on  the 
same  ground  two  years  hi  succession. 
Bur.  Ent.  Cir.  106. 

REFERENCES 

"  Insects  Injurious  to  the  Household  and  Annoying  to  Man."     Herrick. 

"Injurious  Insects:  How  to  Recognize  and  Control."     O'Kane. 

"Manual  for  Study  of  Insects."     Comstock. 

"American  Insects."     Kellogg. 

"Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard."     Sanderson. 

Connecticut  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  186.     "Gipsy  Moth." 

Missouri  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  134.     "Insect  Pests  of  Field  Crops." 

New  Jersey  Expt.  Station  Circular  46.     "Hessian  Fly." 

Utah  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  138.     "Control  of  Grasshoppers." 

Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin! 

150.     "Common  Fungous  and  Insect  Pests." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

344.     "  Boll-Weevil  Problem." 

498.     "Methods  of  Exterminating  the  Texas  Fever  Tick." 

512.      'Boll-Weevil  Problem." 

543.      'Common  White  Grubs." 

564.      'The  Gipsy  and  Brown  Tail  Moth:  Their  Control." 

634.      'The  Larger  Corn  Stalk  Borer." 

636.  'The  Chalcis-Fly  in  Alfalfa  Seed." 

637.  'The  Grass  Hopper  Problem  and  the  Alfalfa  Culture." 
640.      'The  Hessian  Fly." 

671.     '  Harvest  Mites  or  Chiggers." 


CHAPTER   21 

INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 

BY  H.  GARMAN 
Professor  of  Entomology,  University  of  Kentucky 

The  word  insecticide  has  come  to  mean  any  chemical  or  other  sub- 
stance used  to  destroy  insects  that  are  hurtful  or  objectionable  in  any  way 
to  man.  This  definition  excludes  substances  such  as  sticky  fly-paper  that 
may  be  employed  to  entrap  pests  and  would,  according  to  some  entomolo- 
gists, exclude  also  simple  deterrents,  such  as  oil  of  citronella,  used  to  keep 
insects  away  by  their  offensive  odors.  In  a  general  way,  however,  every 
substance  employed  to  prevent  the  injuries  of  insects  is  an  insecticide  and 
in  this  view  it  does  not  matter  whether  or  not  they  kill,  deter  or  entrap. 

The  insecticides  most  used  and  valued  by  practical  men  either  kill 
as  poisons  when  eaten  with  food,  or  else  destroy  when  brought  in  contact 
with  the  bodies  of  insects,  in  which  case  they  are  sometimes  called  contact 
insecticides. 

A  group  of  insecticides  of  which  the  effective  ingredient  is  arsenic  has 
proved  especially  popular  and  useful  in  suppressing  insects  which  feed  by 
gnawing  away  and  devouring  the  leaves  of  plants. 

Paris  Green. — Of  these  the  one  best  known  and  most  used  is  Paris 
green,  Schweinfurth  green,  or  Imperial  green,  French  green  and  Emerald 
green.  It  was  first  used  in  the  arts,  and  because  of  its  cheapness  and 
poisonous  properties  was  early  tried  on  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  (about 
1868)  proving  a  very  satisfactory  means  of  suppressing  the  pest  when  used 
either  as  a  dry  powder  or  when  stirred  into  water.  It  contains  a  little 
soluble  arsenic  however,  and  in  water  this  is  liable  to  burn  leaves  to  which 
it  is  applied,  hence  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  use  too  much.  Four  to 
five  ounces  of  the  powder  in  a  barrel  of  water  is  commonly  regarded  as 
enough;  if  more  is  used  a  pound  or  two  of  freshly-slaked  lime  may  be  added 
to  neutralize  its  caustic  effect. 

Arsenate  of  Lead. — Paris  green  has  two  defects:  Its  burning  action 
is  often  hard  to  guard  against,  and  its  weight  causes  it  to  settle  quickly 
when  used  in  water,  rendering  the  spray  produced  uneven  in  strength. 
Stirrers  connected  with  spray  pumps  obviate  the  latter  trouble,  but  some- 
times increase  the  labor  of  operating  pumps.  The  addition  of  lime,  as 
already  suggested,  lessens  the  burning  action,  though  the  lime  may,  if  care 
is  not  exercised,  increase  the  labor  of  applying. 

Arsenate  of  lead  has  neither  of  these  defects.  It  is  practically  insol- 
uble in  water,  does  not  burn  foliage,  and  it  is  so  finely  subdivided  that  it 

(264) 


INSECTICIDES    AND    FUNGICIDES  265 

remains  suspended  much  better  than  Paris  green.  It  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  adhering  to  leaves  longer  than  Paris  green,  and  thus  fewer 
applications  are  required.  A  single  spraying  with  this  substance,  if  applied 
at  the  right  time,  is  for  some  plants  sufficient  for  a  whole  season.  The 
arsenate  of  lead  paste  is  commonly  used  with  water  in  the  proportion  of 
2J  to  3  pounds  in  50  gallons.  As  found  in  the  market  it  contains  about  50 
per  cent  of  water. 

It  requires  more  by  weight  to  destroy  insects  than  Paris  green,  but 
the  cost  per  pound  is  less  and  hence  the  actual  cost  for  materials  amounts 
to  about  the  same,  whichever  poison  is  used.  Its  advantages  are  so 
decided  in  other  directions  that  it  is  now  supplanting  Paris  green  in  popular 
favor.  For  the  injuries  of  most  gnawing  insects  working  on  foliage  this 
insecticide  may  be  safely  recommended. 

To  meet  the  objections  sometimes  made  to  arsenate  of  lead  paste, 
a  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  has  recently  been  offered  to  the  public  by 
manufacturers  of  insecticides.  The  paste  when  dried  out  is  lumpy  and  is 
not  in  this  condition  easy  to  mix  with  water.  In  the  powdered  form  it  is 
not  open  to  this  objection  and  may,  besides,  be  dusted  over  plants  without 
the  addition  of  water. 

There  are  serious  objections  to  the  use  of  poisonous  dusts,  however, 
though  in  practice  they  have  advantages  that  always  commend  them  to 
workmen.  The  weight  of  the  water  to  be  carried  when  using  liquid  sprays 
increases  the  labor,  of  course,  and  this  ought  to  be  lessened  if  it  can  be  done 
without  diminishing  the  effectiveness  of  the  applications,  and  also  without 
increasing  the  danger  to  those  making  the  applications.  The  inhaling  of 
either  dry  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  is  a  serious  matter,  and  if  con- 
tinued long  is  certain  to  lead  to  ill  health.  Liquid  sprays  go  more  directly 
and  evenly  to  the  plants  and  stay  there.  They  may  be  made  just  as 
promptly  effective  as  the  dusts  if  used  when  the  injury  is  beginning.  They 
are  not  so  likely  to  be  inhaled. 

Arsenite  of  Zinc. — This  poison  has  somewhat  recently  been  recom- 
mended as  a  substitute  for  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead,  and  appears 
to  be  about  equally  good  and  somewhat  cheaper  than  either.  It  is  a  finely 
divided  white  powder  as  put  on  the  market  and  remains  in  suspension 
about  as  well  as  arsenate  of  lead,  having  thus  some  advantage  over  Paris 
green.  It  contains  a  little  water-soluble  arsenic  and  has  been  claimed  to  be 
less  injurious  to  foliage  even  than  arsenate  of  lead,  possessing  at  the  same 
time  about  the  same  killing  power.  For  use  it  is  stirred  first  into  a  little 
water  and  allowed  to  soak  for  a  time,  then  is  stirred  into  the  water  in  which 
it  is  to  be  used,  about  one  pound  of  the  powder  being  added  to  50  gallons  of 
water.  It  contains  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  arsenic  as  Paris  green. 
Like  arsenate  of  lead,  it  remains  in  suspension  better  if  a  little  soap  is 
dissolved  in  the  water  into  which  it  has  been  stirred.  It  has  of  late  been 
quoted  by  dealers  at  from  20  to  25  cents  per  pound. 

London  Purple. — This  arsenite  came  into  use  for  injurious  insects 


266  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

somewhat  later  than  Paris  green  (about  1878),  but  is  less  used  now  than 
formerly  because  of  its  lack  of  uniformity  in  composition  and  its  excessive 
burning  of  foliage.  Its  affective  ingredient  as  an  insecticide  is  arsenic  in 
the  form  of  lime  arsenite  and  lime  arsenate,  of  which  it  contains  about  40 
per  cent,  nearly  half  of  which  is  soluble.  It  is  the  soluble  arsenious  and 
arsenic  oxides  that  make  this  insecticide  so  injurious  to  the  foliage  and 
render  necessary  the  addition  of  lime.  The  amount  of  pure  arsenic 
present  has  been  found  to  be  about  29  per  cent.  For  use  it  is  customary  to 
recommend  about  one-quarter  pound  each  of  London  purple  and  fresh  lime 
in  from  50  to  75  gallons  of  water. 

White  Arsenic. — The  use  of  this  poison  has  been  recommended  from 
time  to  time  for  gnawing  insects,  but  the  time  and  labor  required  in  boiling 
it  with  milk  of  lime  (thus  producing  an  arsenite  of  lime)  in  order  to  avoid  its 
burning  effect  on  foliage  has  prevented  its  general  employment  as  an  insect- 
icide. It  can  be  made  to  accomplish  the  same  purpose  as  Paris  green  and 
arsenate  of  lead,  without  injury  to  foliage,  by  boiling  for  a  half  hour  1 
pound  of  commercial  arsenic  and  2  pounds  of  fresh  lime  in  4  gallons  of 
water,  diluting  with  water  finally  to  make  100  gallons. 

Sulphur. — Flowers  of  sulphur  has  been  used  for  many  years  as  an  in- 
secticide, especially  for  mites  infesting  hothouse  plants.  When  dusted  on 
plants  it  does  no  harm  to  the  leaves,  but  is  not  as  effective  as  could  be 
desired.  Wlien  burned  in  hothouses  it  may  do  severe  injury  to  plants. 
These  defects  have  led  to  its  neglect  by  entomologists.  When  sulphur  is 
boiled  with  lime,  however,  it  produces  a  lime  sulphide,  in  which  condition 
it  becomes  one  of  the  best  of  insecticides  for  use  in  winter  against  scale 
insects. 

Lime-sulphur  Wash. — In  this  condition  thousands  of  barrels  of  the 
boiled  sulphur  and  lime  are  sold  to  fruit  growers  every  year,  who  use  it 
largely  as  a  remedy  against  San  Jose"  scale.  A  concentrated  solution 
is  prepared  by  boiling  in  large  iron  kettles,  tanks  or  other  vessels,  50  pounds 
of  fresh  lime,  100  pounds  of  sulphur  and  50  gallons  of  water.  Part  of  the 
water  is  heated,  then  the  lime  is  added  and  is  followed  by  the  sulphur,  the 
whole  being  stirred  continually  while  boiling,  the  time  employed  being 
from  fifty  minutes  to  an  hour.  Finally,  after  adding  enough  hot  water  to 
make  50  gallons,  the  solution  is  strained  and  set  aside  until  ready  to  use. 
Home-made  solutions  may  not  test  higher  than  27  to  30°  Baume,  but  when 
carefully  made  go  higher  and  may  even  reach  34  or  35°  Baume,  the  differ- 
ences being  apparently  due  to  differences  in  the  quality  of  limes  used. 

The  manufacturers  now  follow  about  the  same  formula  in  producing 
their  concentrated  products,  but  because  of  having  better  facilities  will 
perhaps  average  higher  in  concentration  than  the  fruit  grower,  although 
analysis  of  samples  bought  in  the  market  have  sometimes  shown  that  they 
did  not  test  as  high  as  good  home-made  lime-sulphur. 

These  concentrated  solutions  are  of  a  deep  reddish-yellow  color  and 
for  use  must  be  greatly  diluted  with  water,  It  is  customary  in  spraying 


INSECTICIDES    AND    FUNGICIDES 


267 


for  San  Jos6  scale  to  use  one  part  of  the  solution  to  eight  or  ten  of  water 
and  to  apply  during  open  weather  in  February  or  March,  while  the  trees  are 
still  dormant.  For  summer  use  they  must  be  diluted  with  from  30  to  50 
parts  of  water  to  avoid  injury  to  the  foliage,  but  lose  much  of  their  value 
as  insecticides  when  thus  weakened.  The  concentrated  solution  is  regarded 
as  the  most  effective  remedy  for  scale  injury  now  in  use. 

It  should  be  added  that  there  has  somewhat  recently  appeared  a 
so-called  "soluble  sulphur"  which  is  recommended  for  the  same  uses  as 


LIME-SULPHUR  COOKING  OUTFIT. 


lime-sulphur.     It  promises  well,  but  has  not  been  tested  long  enough  and 
carefully  enough  to  justify  very  positive  statements  as  to  its  merits. 

Tobacco  Extracts.  —  For  use  against  soft-bodied  insects  such  as  plant 
lice  there  is  no  more  useful  insecticide  than  extracts  made  from  the  midribs 
of  tobacco  leaves.  These  extracts  contain  as  their  effective  ingredient 
nicotine  and  differ  widely  hi  the  percentage  of  nicotine  they  contain. 
Home-made  extracts  or  decoctions  are  made  by  placing  a  couple  of  pounds 
of  the  midribs  in  a  wooden  bucket  full  of  boiling  hot  water,  allowing  it  to 
stand  over  night.  The  percentage  of  nicotine  under  such  treatment  will 
probably  not  be  more  than  0.07  per  cent,  but  it  is  a  very  useful  wash  for 
plants  infested  with  aphides,  does  no  harm  at  all  to  leaves,  and  where 

»Fro«  Farmers'  Bulletin  650,  U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


268  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

tobacco  is  grown  and  the  midribs  can  be  easily  secured  is  one  of  the  very 
best  insecticides  for  uses  of  this  sort.  The  whole  leaf  makes  a  somewhat 
stronger  extract  (0.12  per  cent)  as  determined  by  tests  recently  made  at 
the  Virginia  Station.  Soaking  seems  to  extract  as  much  of  the  nicotine  as 
boiling.  When  plants  are  to  be  treated  on  a  larger  scale  it  becomes  impor- 
tant to  know  just  how  much  nicotine  is  present  in  a  wash,  and  manufactured 
extracts,  some  of  them  containing  40  per  cent  of  nicotine,  are  demanded. 
For  the  apple  leaf  louse,  the  lettuce  louse,  the  rose  aphis  and  other  similar 
pests,  these  extracts  are  safe  and  effective.  For  thick-skinned  insects  they 
are  not  so  satisfactory. 

Tobacco  is  often  used  in  other  ways  as  a  remedy  for  insect  injuries, 
but  is  open  to  some  objections  when  so  employed.  Florists  have  long  used 
the  midribs  (often  called  " stems")  for  making  a  smudge  for  the  destruction 
of  plant  lice.  The  tobacco  is  simply  burned  in  a  perforated  iron  vessel. 
The  smoke  leaves  a  strong  smell  of  tobacco  on  flowers,  which  is  sometimes 
objected  to  by  buyers.  The  odor  can  be  avoided  by  using  the  extract 
diluted  with  water  and  driven  off  as  a  vapor  by  dropping  a  hot  iron  into  a 
pan  containing  it. 

Pyrethrum. — Under  the  name  Persian  insect  powder  or  simply  insect 
powder  this  insecticide  is  to  be  obtained  from  most  dealers  in  drugs.  It 
is  a  brown  powder  made  from  the  flowers  of  a  rather  handsome  plant  of 
the  sunflower  family  (Composite).  Its  beauty  leads  florists  to  propagate 
it,  though  few  who  grow  the  plant  know  that  it  has  any  relation  to  the 
powder  sold  in  drug  stores.  It  comes  to  us  from  the  East,  and  the  pow- 
der commonly  sold  here  is  imported,  though  an  effort  has  been  made  in 
the  west  coast  states  to  manufacture  the  powder  in  this  country. 

The  powder  is  thought  to  give  off  a  volatile  oil  which  penetrates  the 
breathing  tubes  of  insects  and  thus  by  some  irritating  or  suffocating  effect 
overpowers  them.  It  is  effective  either  dry,  in  water  or  when  burned  to 
produce  a  smudge,  but  must  be  fresh.  It  loses  much  of  its  effectiveness  if 
kept  in  open  packages.  Though  rather  costly  for  use  on  field  crops,  it  has 
a  place  in  the  household  at  times,  and  may  sometimes  be  profitably  resorted 
to  for  limited  outbreaks  of  garden  pests.  Unlike  most  other  insecticides, 
this  one  is  not  hurtful  to  man;  at  any  rate,  not  more  so  than  snuff. 

White  Hellebore. — This  is  another  vegetable  product,  being  the 
pulverized  rootstocks  of  a  plant  (Veratrum  album)  of  the  lily  family, 
occurring  in  Europe  and  northern  Africa.  It  is  used  in  this  country  for 
the  rose  slug,  either  dry  or  in  water,  in  the  latter  case  about  two  heaping 
tablespoonfuls  being  stirred  into  a  wooden  bucketful  (2J  gallons)  of  water. 
It  is  a  stomach  poison  and  also  a  contact  insecticide. 

Old  samples  when  not  kept  in  airtight  receptacles  lose  their  virtue  and 
tend  to  discredit  this  vegetable  poison  as  a  remedy  for  pests. 

Coal  Oil. — This  oil  has  become  well  known  as  an  insecticide  in  the 
form  of  an  emulsion.  It  is  a  good  contact  insecticide,  serving  the  same 
purpose  as  lime-sulphur  wash  in  the  destruction  of  scale  insects,  and  having 

64 


INSECTICIDES    AND     FUNGICIDES  269 

the  advantage  of  remaining  effective  when  diluted.  It  can,  therefore,  be 
used  on  foliage  in  summer  for  both  scale  insects  and  plant  lice,  and  being 
quicker  in  its  action  than  tobacco  extract,  has  advantages  under  some 
circumstances  over  the  extract  for  the  prompt  destruction  of  soft-bodied 
insects.  It  is,  however,  more  likely  to  do  injury  to  plants,  especially  if  the 
emulsion  is  badly  prepared,  and  this,  together  with  the  work  required  in 
making  it,  leads  practical  men  to  neglect  it  whenever  they  can  use  some- 
thing else. 

The  standard  emulsion  is  made  of  one-half  pound  of  whale  oil  or 
laundry  soap  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  boiling  hot  water,  this  to  be  added  to 
two  gallons  of  coal  oil,  and  the  whole  churned  for  ten  minutes  by  passing 
rapidly  through  a  force  pump.  As  thus  made  it  can  be  diluted  for  use, 
one  part  to  ten  of  water. 

Crude  Oils. — These  are  sometimes  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the 
refined  oil,  and  to  render  them  easily  mixed  with  water  are  sometimes 
mixed  with  caustic  potash,  fish  oil  and  crude  carbolic  acid,  producing  a 
so-called  miscible  or  soluble  oil,  which  can  be  diluted  with  water  for  use 
like  the  coal  oil  emulsion. 

Soaps. — Many  of  the  soaps  sold  in  our  market  can  be  used  at  times  as 
a  means  of  lessening  the  injuries  of  insect  pests.  A  good  soapsuds  fre- 
quently and  freely  used  on  plants  infested  with  aphides  or  scale  insects  has 
a  good  effect,  though  not  a  very  prompt  one.  Stronger  solutions  must  be 
used  with  some  caution  to  avoid  injury  to  foliage.  When  trees  are  dormant 
very  strong  solutions  (one  or  two  pounds  to  a  gallon  of  water)  are  sometimes 
used  on  the  trunks  for  scale  and  other  insects. 

Whale  oil  soap  or  fish  oil  soap,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  most  others  because  of  its  more  even  composition.  It  is  particu- 
larly good  for  use  in  making  coal  oil  emulsion. 

Coal  Tar. — In  the  early  days  of  fruit  growing  in  America  this  substance 
was  much  used  on  the  trunks  of  trees  to  prevent  the  ascent  in  the  spring 
of  the  wingless  female  canker  worm  moth.  It  proved  to  have  an  injurious 
effect  on  the  trees  after  a  time,  and  hardened  on  exposure,  so  that  the  insects 
could  pass  over  the  barrier.  It  was  then  used  on  bands  of  tin,  and  by 
frequent  renewal  proved  a  useful  check  on  the  insect.  But  with  the  intro- 
duction of  arsenites  and  spraying  machinery,  it  was  given  up  for  the  more 
convenient  treatment.  It  is  still  used  as  a  barrier,  poured  along  the  ground, 
for  chinch-bugs  which  are  migrating  from  small  grains  to  corn.  Seed  corn 
may  be  treated  with  it  before  planting  to  deter  wire  worms  and  the  seed 
corn  maggot  from  attacking  the  germinating  seeds.  The  corn  is  first 
immersed  in  warm  water  for  a  minute  or  two,  then  a  couple  of  teaspoonfuls 
of  the  tar  are  stirred  quickly  among  the  grain  so  as  to  bring  a  little  in  con- 
tact with  each  seed.  It  dries  over  night  so  as  to  be  ready  for  planting  the 
following  day.  The  application  does  no  harm  to  the  germ,  as  has  been 
determined  by  germination  tests  of  treated  seeds. 

Borax. — This  substance  has  often  been  recommended  for  roaches  in 


270  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

dwellings,  and  is  sometimes  found  with  an  arsenite  as  an  ingredient  of 
proprietary  roach  pastes.  Recent  work  done  with  a  view  to  destroying 
the  larvae  of  house  flies  in  manure  indicates  that  this  is  one  of  the  best  of 
insecticides  for  the  purpose,  excelling  for  this  use,  coal  oil,  pyroligneus  acid, 
formalin  and  Paris  green.  Sodium  borate  and  crude  calcium  borate  were 
both  found  effective  in  killing  the  larvae,  either  when  used  dry  or  in  solu- 
tion. It  was  recommended  as  a  result  of  the  work  done  that  about  0.62 
pound  of  borax  be  used  in  8  bushels  of  manure.  Larger  amounts  of  borax 
are  believed  to  be  injurious  to  plants  when  the  manure  is  spread  on  land. 
The  cost  was  estimated  at  one  cent  per  horse  per  day. 

Other  Insecticides. — Numerous  other  insecticides  have  been  recom- 
mended, and  have  had  a  limited  use,  but,  excepting  the  fumigants  con- 
sidered later,  they  have  not  been  generally  adopted  by  practical  men. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  benzene,  which  is  sometimes  applied  to 
fabrics  to  destroy  clothes  moth;  carbolized  plaster,  sometimes  recom- 
mended as  a  remedy  for  fleas  about  stables;  fir-tree  oil,  lemon  oil  and  oil 
of  citronella,  the  latter  often  employed  as  a  deterrent  against  the  attacks 
of  mosquitoes  and  also  as  a  preventive  of  injury  to  seed  corn  in  the  soil. 
Quassia,  the  effective  ingredient  of  which  is  quassiin,  is  obtained  from 
the  wood  of  the  Jamaican  Picrasma  excelsa.  It  is  an  old  insecticide  that 
has  been  perhaps  most  used  in  solutions  for  the  hop  aphis  in  the  West. 
The  extract  is  made  from  the  " chips"  by  either  soaking  or  boiling. 

Bisulphide  of  Carbon. — As  sold  by  druggists  and  manufacturers,  this 
is  a  brownish  fluid  which  quickly  disappears  in  the  air  when  exposed  in 
an  open  vessel.  Its  disagreeable  odor  is  due  to  impurities,  since  the  odor 
of  pure  bisulphide  of  carbon  is  not  unpleasant.  The  fumes  are  not  only 
poisonous,  but  are  inflammable,  so  that  some  care  must  be  exercised  in 
handling  the  fluid.  It  has  proved  of  special  service  as  a  remedy  for  grain 
weevil,  bean  weevil  and  other  insects  attacking  stored  seeds,  and  for  the 
phylloxera  of  grapevines  in  Europe,  for  the  woolly  aphis,  for  ants,  and 
even  for  the  clothes  moth.  Its  great  value  for  such  purposes  comes  not 
only  from  its  effectiveness  in  destroying  all  insects,  but  also  because  it  is 
not  corrosive  and  is  otherwise  not  injurious  to  seeds,  fabrics  and  other 
objects  fumigated.  The  offensive  odor  is  soon  gone  if  objects  that  have 
been  exposed  to  the  fumes  are  thoroughly  aired.  It  cannot  be  used  for 
fumigating  plants  infested  with  insects  because  of  its  destructive  effect  on 
the  plants  themselves. 

About  one  fluid  ounce  should  be  used  on  each  bushel  of  seed,  and  may 
be  poured  over  the  seeds  or  simply  placed  in  a  saucer  or  other  open  vessel 
set  on  their  surface.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  seeds  be  enclosed 
in  a  tight  box  or  bin  to  get  satisfactory  results,  and  the  time  of  exposure 
should  not  be  less  than  two  nours. 

Carbon  Tetrachlorid.— The  disagreeable  odor  of  commercial  bisulphide 
of  carbon  renders  it  objectionable  to  some  people  for  use  on  fabrics  infested 
with  moth,  and  has  led  to  the  suggestion  that  carbon  tetrachlorid,  which 


INSECTICIDES    AND    FUNGICIDES 


271 


has  a  rather  pleasant  odor,  be  used  in  its  stead.  This  also  is  a  fluid,  and  is 
used  hi  the  same  way  as  carbon  bisulphide,  namely,  by  pouring  it  into  open 
dishes  or  crocks  and  allowing  it  to  evaporate  in  a  box,  bin  or  room. 

It  is  not  nearly  as  effective  in  small  quantities  as  either  cyanide  of 
potassium  or  carbon  bisulphide,  and  the  large  quantities  that  must  be 
used  increase  the  cost  of  treatment. 

Para-dichlorobenzene. — This  is  a  recently  proposed  fumigant  and  is 
not  yet  in  general  use,  because  of  its  cost.  It  is  not  evil-smelling  like 


MAKING  PREPARATIONS  TO  FUMIGATE  WITH  HYDROCYANIC  GAS.1 
Front  edge  of  sheet  tent  and  top  of  derrick  ready  to  be  pulled  over  tree. 

carbon  bisulphide,  and  appears  to  be  quite  effective  in  destroying  weevils 
in  grain  and  clothes  moth.  Since  it  is  not  inflammable,  it  can  be  more 
safely  used  about  dwellings,  though  its  fumes  have  wonderful  penetrating 
power  and  escape  in  some  quantity  even  from  tightly  stoppered  bottles. 
From  a  limited  experience  with  it  the  writer  is  disposed  to  regard  it  very 
favorably  for  fumigating  seeds  and  fabrics,  though  more  extended  tests 
may  show  it  to  have  defects  that  are  not  now  apparent. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. — This  gas  is  made  from  cyanide  of  potassium 
(98  per  cent),  commercial  sulphuric  acid  of  good  grade  and  water.     The 

» Courtesy  of  U,  3.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


272 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


gas  produced  is  very  poisonous,  as  are  also  the  cyanide  of  potassium  and 
sulphuric  acid.  When  fumigating  it  is  well  to  place  a  notice  on  the  room 
or  house  warning  people  not  to  enter.  After  the  fumigating  is  accomplished 
it  is  advisable  to  open  up  doors  and  windows  and  air  out  for  ten  minutes 
or  more  before  entering. 

The  dose  to  be  used  depends  upon  the  space  to  be  fumigated  and  upon 
the  character  of  the  plants  to  be  treated.    Dormant  trees  can  be  exposed  for 


FUMIGATING  WITH  HYDROCYANIC  GAS.1 
Sheet  tent  ready  for  introduction  of  chemicals. 

a  time  to  very  strong  fumes.  Growing  plants  must  be  treated  cautiously 
with  very  mild  doses.  Some  of  them  are  very  sensitive  to  the  gas  and  will 
be  slightly  burned  with  any  dose  calculated  to  be  of  value  in  destroying 
insects.  The  condition  of  the  air  as  to  moisture  may  influence  the  results, 
since  dampness  favors  injury  from  the  gas. 

For  nursery  stock  it  is  customary  to  employ  for  each  100  cubic  feet 
enclosed,  the  following: 

Cyanide  of  potassium 1  ounce 

Sulphuric  acid 1 . 25  fluid  ounces 

Water .3  fluid  ounces 


1  Courtesy  of  U,  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


INSECTICIDES    AND    FUNGICIDES 


273 


FUNGICIDES 

When  all  has  been  said  the  number  of  fungicides  approved  by  the 
experience  of  practical  and  scientific  men  is  very  small.  Many  have  been 
recommended,  but  comparatively  few  have  stood  all  the  tests  as  to  effective- 
ness, convenience  of  application  and  cheapness. 

Copper  Sulphate. — At  the  head  of  the  list  stands  copper  sulphate,  a 
cheap,  effective  fungicide,  commonly  known  as  bluestone.  This  is  the 
active  and  most  essential  ingredient  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  Concentrated 
solutions  of  it  cannot  be  used  alone  on  foliage  because  of  their  caustic  action. 
In  winter  on  dormant  trees  it  is  sometimes  used  for  fungous  troubles,  about 
two  pounds  being  dissolved  in  a  barrel  of  water.  A  weaker  solution — 1 


EFFICIENCY  OF  BORDEAUX  MIXTURE  ox  POTATOES. 
NOT  SPRAYED. l 


ONE  Row 


pound  in  200  gallons  of  water — may  be  used  on  foliage  in  summer  when 
fruit  is  well  matured  and  it  is  not  desirable  to  use  sprays  like  Bordeaux 
mixture,  which  leave  a  residue.  The  bluestone  may  be  quickly  dissolved 
by  pouring  boiling  hot  water  over  it.  When  one  is  not  hurried  it  may  be 
dissolved  by  suspending  in  a  loose  sack  in  the  water.  It  dissolves  slowly 
if  simply  thrown  in  the  water  and  allowed  to  settle. 

To  avoid  to  some  extent  the  delays  involved  in  dissolving  bluestone  it 
is  well  to  buy  a  finely  powdered  grade  now  manufactured  for  the  making 
of  fungicidal  preparations. 

Bordeaux  Mixture.— A  standard  formula  for  the  preparation  of  this 
valuable  mixture  is  the  following: 

Bluestone 4  pounds 

Fresh  lime 4  pounds 

Water °°  gallons 

1  Courtesy  of  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 


274 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Dissolve  the  bluestone  in  25  gallons  of  water,  slake  the  lime  separately, 
and  add  water  to  make  25  gallons;  then  pour  the  two,  bucket  by  bucket, 
into  a  third  barrel  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly.  For  peach  and  plum,  which  are 
more  tender  than  apple  and  grape,  the  above  formula  may  be  changed  to 
the  following: 

Bluestone 2.5  pounds 

Fresh  lime 2.5  pounds 

Water 50      gallons 

These  are  the  best  preparations  known  for  mildews,  rots,  scabs,  smuts 
and  the  like,  and  where  one  is  dealing  with  a  fungous  trouble  and  is  uncer- 


TREATING  GRAIN  WITH  FORMALIN  FOR  SMUT.1 

tain  as  to  how  to  proceed,  the  chances  are  that  he  will  accomplish  as  much 
by  using  this  preparation  as  with  anything  that  could  be  recommended. 
It  is  the  best  general-purpose  fungicide  we  have  at  present. 

Copperas,  or  Iron  Sulphate. — While  this  is  less  often  used  than  blue- 
stone,  yet  it  has  decided  fungicide  and  antiseptic  value,  and  because  of  its 
cheapness  may  sometimes  be  found  serviceable.  As  now  used  it  generally 
comes  to  the  market  as  a  waste  product  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  wire, 
and  may  be  bought  for  a  cent  or  less  per  pound. 

Formalin,  or  Formaldehyde. — This  very  valuable  preservative  and 
antiseptic  has  been  much  used  of  late  as  a  remedy  for  potato  scab  and  to 
some  extent  for  wheat  smut.  It  is  sold  as  a  fluid  containing  forty  per  cent 
of  formalin.  In  this  condition  it  is  very  acrid,  and  gives  off  fumes  that 
affect  the  eyes  and  nostrils  unpleasantly.  Used  on  the  hands,  it  quickly 

1  Courtesy  of  H.  L.  Bolley  and  M.  L.  Wilson,  North  Dakota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


INSECTICIDES    AND    FUNGICIDES  275 

destroys  the  outer  skin.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  employed  except  when 
greatly  diluted.  But  since  it  retains  its  active  fungicide  and  bactericidal 
properties  even  when  very  greatly  diluted,  and  is  not  so  dangerous  a  poison 
in  this  condition  as  are  corrosive  sublimate  and  other  antiseptic  agents,  it 
becomes  very  useful  in  the  hands  of  those  who  wish  to  disinfect  quarters  in 
which  have  been  lodged  people,  or  animals,  affected  with  communicable 
diseases.  The  wash  or  spray  of  the  dilute  formalin  has  always  seemed  to 
the  writer  much  better  for  such  uses  than  the  fumes  of  formalin  as  generally 
produced. 

On  plants  the  action  of  even  dilute  sprays  is  very  quickly  destructive, 
and  I  doubt  if  it  has  a  value  for  their  treatment.  But  for  seed  wheat, 
likely  to  produce  smutted  heads  and  for  potato  scab  it  has  proved  very 
convenient  and  useful.  A  pint  of  the  40  per  cent  formalin  may  be  poured 
into  a  barrel  containing  30  gallons  of  water,  stirred  thoroughly,  and  the 
potatoes  in  a  sack  can  be  set  in  the  barrel  for  disinfection.  They  should  be 
left  hi  the  fluid  for  two  hours  and  may  then  be  removed  and  spread  out  on 
grass  or  on  a  clean  plank  floor  to  dry,  when  another  sack  may  be  placed 
in  the  barrel.  The  treated  potatoes  must  not  be  put  in  barrels  or  sacks 
that  have  not  been  treated  with  the  formalin.  By  having  a  number  of 
barrels  at  hand,  the  work  proceeds  rapidly. 

Oats  and  wheat  liable  to  smut  may  be  treated  by  sprinkling  the  seed 
with  dilute  formalin  (1  pint  in  a  barrel  of  water)  until  every  seed  is  moist, 
not  wet,  then  leaving  for  several  hours  hi  a  heap,  finally  spreading  out 
to  dry. 

Fumes  of  formalin  produced  either  by  heat  or  by  the  use  of  perman- 
ganate of  potash  have  been  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  potato  scab, 
but  the  writer's  experience  with  the  fumes  has  not  been  such  as  to  warrant 
him  in  recommending  them  for  this  or  for  other  purposes. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury. — A  very  poisonous  chemical,  valuable  in  dilate 
solutions  (1  part  in  1000)  as  a  disinfectant,  and  particularly  good  as  a 
remedy  for  potato  scab.  The  whitish,  crystalline,  very  heavy  material  is 
very  dangerous  to  have  about,  since  it  may  attract  the  attention  of  children 
or  animals.  It  should  of  course  always  be  kept  labeled  as  a  poison.  It 
dissolves  slowly  in  cold  water,  and  it  is  best,  therefore,  to  make  use  of  heat, 
afterward  turning  the  dissolved  poison  into  the  larger  quantity  of  water 
required,  best  kept  in  a  barrel.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  in  check- 
ing potato  scab  with  this  disinfectant,  using  4  ounces  in  30  gallons  of 
water  and  soaking  the  seed  potatoes  one  hour.  They  were  placed  in  the 
fluid  in  gunny  sacks  and  afterward  spread  out  on  a  barn  floor  to  dry. 

It  is  very  essential  that  poisoned  potatoes  be  not  left  where  stock  will 
eat  them,  and  the  poisonous  fluid  must  be  disposed  of  after  treating  the 
seed,  so  that  it  will  do  no  harm. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash. — This  preparation  of  sulphur  and  lime  has 
already  been  mentioned  under  insecticides.  It  has  undoubted  fungicide 
value  both  in  concentrated  and  dilute  preparations.  For  foliage  the  latter 


276  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

must  always  be  used.  Even  the  sulphur  alone  thickly  strewn  over  leaves 
is  a  fairly  good  remedy  for  mildew.  A  very  small  quantity  of  the  sulphur 
dissolved  in  the  presence  of  lime  renders  it  more  effective  both  as  an  insect- 
icide and  as  a  fungicide. 

COMBINED   INSECTICIDES  AND   FUNGICIDES 

The  cost  of  treatment  for  pests  is  greatly  increased  by  the  necessity 
for  frequent  spraying  when  insecticides  and  fungicides  are  used  separately. 
They  have  been  combined  in  some  cases  with  no  loss  in  the  effectiveness  of 
either,  and  one  of  the  important  problems  of  both  entomologists  and  plant 
pathologists  at  the  present  time  is  the  finding  of  ways  and  means  of  reducing 
the  number  of  sprayings  still  further. 

Some  work  in  determining  the  compatibility  of  different  mixtures  has 
already  been  done,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  following  mix  without  loss 
and  in  some  cases  with  a  gain  in  effectiveness: 

Arsenate  of  lead  (acid)  and  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Arsenate  of  lead  and  tobacco. 

Arsenate  of  lead  and  acids. 

Arsenate  of  lead  (neutral)  and  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Arsenate  of  lead  (neutral)  and  lime-sulphur. 

Arsenate  of  lead  (neutral)  and  tobacco. 

Paris  green  and  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Arsenite  of  lime  and  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Arsenite  of  lime  and  tobacco. 

Lime-sulphur  and  tobacco. 

Soaps  and  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Soaps  and  tobacco. 

Soaps  and  emulsions. 

Tobacco  and  lime-sulphur. 

Tobacco  and  soaps. 

Tobacco  and  emulsions. 

Tobacco  and  alkalies. 

Some  dangerous  combinations  are  the  following: 

Arsenate  of  lead  (acid)  and  soaps. 

Arsenate  of  lead  (acid)  and  emulsions. 

Arsenate  of  lead  (acid)  and  alkalies. 

Arsenate  of  lead  (neutral)  and  acids. 

Arsenite  of  zinc  and  lime-sulphur. 

Arsenite  of  zinc  and  soaps. 

Arsenite  of  zinc  and  emulsions. 

Arsenite  of  zinc  and  alkalies. 

Arsenite  of  zinc  and  acids. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  Bordeaux  mixture. 


PART  III 

TABLES  OF  AGRICULTURAL 

STATISTICS  AND  WEIGHTS 

AND  MEASURES 


(277) 


TABLE  I. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


TABLE  VI. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract. 

Corn  dent 

10  6 

1  5 

10  3 

2  2 

70   4 

5  0 

Corn  flint 

11  3 

1  4 

10  5 

1.7 

70    1 

5  0 

Corn  sweet 

8  8 

1  9 

11.6 

2.8 

66  8 

8  1 

Corn  meal                        .    .        ... 

15  0 

1  4 

9.2 

1.9 

68  7 

3  8 

Corn  cob  
Corn  and  cob  meal  

10.7 
15.1 

1.4 
1.5 

2.4 
8.5 

30.1 
6.6 

54.9 

64  8 

0.5 
3.5 

Corn  bran 

9  1 

1  3 

9  0 

12  7 

62  2 

5  8 

Corn  germ                                     .... 

10  7 

4  0 

9  8 

4.1 

64  0 

7  4 

Hominy  chops  
Germ  meal              

11.1 
8  1 

2.5 
1.3 

9.8 
11.1 

3.8 
9.9 

64.5 
62  5 

8.3 
7  1 

Dried  starch  and  sugar  feed  ...... 

10.9 

0.9 

19.7 

4.7 

54  8 

9  0 

Starch  feed   wet 

65  4 

0  3 

6  1 

3  1 

22  0 

3  1 

Maize  feed   Chicago        

9  1 

0  9 

22  8 

7  6 

52  7 

6  9 

Grano-gluten  
Cream  gluten      

5.8 
8.1 

2.8 
0  7 

31.1 
36  1 

12.0 
1.3 

33.4 
39  0 

14.9 
14  8 

Gluten  meal 

8  2 

0  9 

29  3 

3  3 

46  5 

11  8 

Gluten  feed 

7  8 

1  i 

24  0 

5  3 

51  2 

10  6 

Wheat   all  anatyses 

10  5 

1  8 

11  9 

1  8 

71  9 

2  1 

Wheat   spring 

10  4 

1  9 

12  5 

1  8 

71  2 

2  2 

Wheat  winter       

10  5 

1  8 

11  8 

1  8 

72  0 

2  1 

Flour,  high  grade  
Flour  low  grade 

12.2 
12  0 

0.6 
2  0 

14.9 
18  0 

0.3 
0  9 

70.0 
63  3 

2.0 
3  9 

Flour  dark  feeding 

9  7 

4  3 

19  9 

3  8 

56  2 

6  2 

Bran  all  analyses            .    .    . 

11  9 

5  8 

15  4 

9  0 

53  9 

4  0 

Bran  spring  wheat  * 

11  5 

5  4 

16  1 

8  0 

54  5 

4  5 

Bran,  winter  wheat  

12  3 

5  9 

16  0 

8  1 

53  7 

4  0 

Middlings 

12  1 

3  3 

15  6 

4  6 

60  4 

4  0 

Shorts 

11  8 

4  6 

14  9 

7  4 

56  8 

4  5 

Wheat  screenings 

11  6 

2  9 

12  5 

4  9 

65  1 

3  0 

Rve                .    . 

11  6 

1  9 

10  6 

1  7 

72  5 

1  7 

Rve  flour  

13  1 

0  7 

6  7 

0  4 

78  3 

0  8 

Rye  bran  
Rve  shorts  

11.6 
9.3 

3.6 
5  9 

14.7 
18  0 

3.5 
5.1 

63.8 
59  9 

2.8 
2  8 

Barlev 

10  9 

2  4 

12  4 

2  7 

69  8 

1  8 

Barley  meal                                 .    . 

11  9 

2  6 

10  5 

6  5 

66  3 

2  2 

Barley  screenings  
Brewers'  grains,  wet  

12.2 

75.7 

3.6 
1.0 

12.3 
5  4 

7.3 

3  8 

61.8 
12  5 

2.8 
1  6 

Brewers'  grains  dried 

8  2 

3  6 

19  9 

11  0 

51  7 

5  6 

Malt  sprouts  

10  2 

5  7 

23  2 

10  7 

48  5 

1  7 

Oats    

11  0 

3  0 

11  8 

9  5 

59  7 

5  0 

Oat  meal 

7  9 

2  0 

14  7 

0  9 

67  4 

7  1 

Oat  feed 

7  7 

3  7 

16  0 

6  1 

59  4 

7  i 

Oat  dust 

6  5 

6  9 

13  5 

18  2 

50  2 

4  8 

Oat  hulls 

7  3 

6  7 

3  3 

29  7 

52  1 

1  0 

Rice    

12  4 

0  4 

7  4 

0  2 

79  2 

0  4 

Rice  meal  

10  2 

8  1 

12  0 

5  4 

51  2 

13  1 

Rice  hulls  

8.2 

13  2 

3  6 

35  7 

38  6 

0  7 

Rice  bran 

9  7 

10  0 

12  1 

9  5 

49  9 

8  8 

Rice  polish 

10  0 

6  7 

11  7 

6  3 

58  0 

7  3 

Buckwheat  

12  6 

2  0 

10  0 

8  7 

64  5 

2  2 

Buckwheat  flour  

14  6 

1  0 

6  9 

0  3 

75  8 

1  4 

Buckwheat  hulls 

13  2 

2  2 

4  6 

43  5 

35  3 

1  i 

Buckwheat  bran               .... 

10  5 

3  0 

12  4 

31  9 

38  8 

3  3 

Buckwheat  shorts  
Buckwheat  middlings 

11.1 
13  2 

5.1 

4  8 

27.1 
28  9 

8.3 
4  i 

40.8 
41  9 

7.6 
7  1 

Sorghum  seed  

12.8 

2.1 

9.1 

2^6 

69^8 

3.6 

280 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  I. — PEKCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  (Continued). 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract. 

Broom-corn  seed 

11  5 

3  4 

10  2 

7   1 

63  6 

3  0 

Kaffir  S66d  • 

9  3 

1  5 

9  9 

1   4 

74  9 

3  0 

Millet  seed                  

14  0 

3  3 

11  8 

9.5 

57  4 

4  0 

Hungarian  grass  seed  

9  5 

5.0 

9  9 

7.7 

63.2 

4  7 

Flaxseed        

9.2 

4.3 

22.6 

7.1 

23.2 

33.7 

Flaxseed  ground 

8  1 

4  7 

21  6 

7  3 

27  9 

30  4 

Linseed  meal  old  process       .... 

9  2 

5  7 

32  9 

8  9 

35  4 

7  9 

Linseed  meal  new  process   

10  1 

5  8 

33  2 

9  5 

38  4 

3  0 

Cotton  seed     .         

10.3 

3  5 

18.4 

23  2 

24  7 

19  9 

Cotton  seed  roasted  

6.1 

5.5 

16.8 

20.4 

23  5 

27  7 

Cottonseed  meal  

8.2 

7.2 

42.3 

5.6 

23.6 

13  1 

Cottonseed  hulls 

11  1 

2  8 

4  2 

46  3 

33  4 

2  2 

Cottonseed  kernels  (no  hulls) 

6  2 

4  7 

31  2 

3  7 

17  6 

36  6 

Cocoanut  cake             

10  3 

5  9 

19  7 

14  4 

38  7 

11  0 

Palm  nut  meal       

10.4 

4  3 

16  8 

24  0 

35  0 

9  5 

Sunflower  seed      

8.6 

2.6 

16.3 

29.9 

21  4 

21  2 

Sunflower  seed  cake 

10  8 

6  7 

32  8 

13  5 

27  1 

9  i 

Peanut  kernels  (no  hulls)  
Peanut  meal               . 

7.5 

10  7 

2.4 
4  9 

27.9 
47  6 

7.0 
5  1 

15.6 
23  7 

39.6 
8  0 

Rape  seed  cake      

10  0 

7  9 

31  2 

11  3 

30  0 

9  6 

Pea  meal  

10  5 

2  6 

20  2 

14  4 

51  1 

1  2 

Soy  bean   

10.8 

4.7 

34.0 

4  8 

28  8 

16  9 

Cowpea    

14.8 

3.2 

20.8 

4.1 

55.7 

1.4 

Horse  bean 

11  3 

3  8 

26  6 

7  2 

50  1 

1  0 

Corn  fodder  field  cured          

42  2 

2  7 

4  5 

14  3 

34  7 

1  6 

Corn  stover  field  cured  

40  5 

3  4 

3  8 

19  7 

31  5 

1  1 

Corn  husks,  field  cured  

50  9 

1  8 

2  5 

15  8 

28  3 

0  7 

Corn  leaves  field  cured 

30  0 

5  5 

6  0 

21  4 

35  7 

1  4 

Corn  fodder  green 

79  3 

2 

1  8 

5  0 

12  2 

0  5 

Dent  varieties  green                   .    . 

79  0 

2 

1  7 

5  6 

12  0 

0  5 

Dent  kernels  glazed  green  

73  4 

5 

2  0 

6  7 

15  5 

0  9 

Flint  varieties,  green  

79  8 

1 

2  0 

4  3 

12  1 

0  7 

Flint,  kernels  glazed  green  

77  1 

1 

2  7 

4  3 

14  6 

0  8 

Sweet  varieties  green 

79  1 

3 

1  9 

4  4 

12  8 

0  5 

Leaves  and  husks,  green  
Stripped  stalks  green  

66.2 
76  1 

2.9 

0  7 

2.1 
0  5 

8.7 
7  3 

19.0 
14  9 

1.1 
0  5 

HAY  FROM  GRASSES: 
Mixed  grasses  

15.3 

5  5 

7  4 

27  2 

42  1 

2  5 

Timothy  all  analyses 

13  2 

4  4 

5  9 

29  0 

45  0 

2  5 

Timothy,  cut  in  full  bloom  
Timothy,  cut  soon  after  bloom  .... 
Timothy,  cut  when  near  ripe  
Orchard  grass  

15.0 
14.2 
14.1 
9.9 

4.5 
4.4 
3.9 
6.0 

6.0 
5.7 
5.0 
8  1 

29.6 
28.1 
31.1 
32  4 

41.9 
44.6 
43.7 
41  0 

3.0 
3.0 
2.2 

2  6 

Redtop,  cut  at  different  stages  .... 
Redtop,  cut  in  full  bloom  
Kentucky  blue  grass    .    . 

8.9 
8.7 
21.2 

5.2 
4.9 
6  3 

7.9 
8.0 

7  8 

28.6 
29.9 
23  0 

47.5 
46.4 
37  8 

1.9 
2.1 
3  9 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  cut  when  seed 
is  in  milk    

24.4 

7  0 

6  3 

24  5 

34  2 

3  6 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  cut  when  seed 
is  ripe  

27.8 

6.4 

5  8 

23  8 

33  2 

3  0 

Hungarian  grass 

7  7 

6  0 

7  5 

27  7 

49  0 

2  1 

IVIeadow  fescue 

20  0 

6  8 

7  0 

25  9 

38  4 

2  7 

Indian  rye  grass       

8  5 

6  9 

7  5 

30  5 

45  0 

1  7 

Perennial  rye  grass  

14.0 

7  9 

10  1 

25  4 

40  5 

2  1 

Rowen  (mixed)  

16.6 

6.8 

11.6 

22.5 

39.4 

3.1 

AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


281 


TABLE  I. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  (Continued). 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract. 

HAY  FROM  GRASSES  (Continued)  : 
Mixed  grasses  and.  clovers 

12  9 

5  5 

10  1 

27  6 

41  3 

2  6 

Barley  hay  cut  in  milk.       .    . 

15  0 

4  2 

8  8 

24  7 

44  9 

2  4 

Oat  hay  cut  in  milk  

15.0 

5  2 

9  3 

29  2 

39  0 

2  3 

Swamp  nay  

11.6 

6  7 

7  2 

26  6 

45  9 

2  0 

Salt  marsh  hay  

10.4 

7.7 

5  5 

30  0 

44  1 

2  4 

"Wild,  oat  grass 

14  3 

3  8 

5  0 

25  0 

48  8 

3  3 

Buttercups 

9  3 

5  6 

9  9 

30  6 

41  1 

3  5 

White  daisy      .          

10.3 

6  6 

7  7 

30  0 

42  0 

3  4 

Johnson  grass  

10.2 

6.1 

7.2 

28.5 

45  9 

2  1 

FRESH  GRASS: 
Pasture  grass          .        ... 

80  0 

2  0 

3  5 

4  0 

9  7 

0  09 

Kentucky  blue  grass  

65  1 

2  8 

4  1 

9  1 

17  6 

1  3 

Timothy,  different  stages  

61  6 

2  1 

3  1 

11  8 

20  2 

1  2 

Orchard  grass  in  bloom 

73  0 

2  0 

2  6 

8  2 

13  3 

0  9 

Redtop  in  bloom  

65  3 

2  3 

2  8 

11  0 

17  7 

0  9 

Oat  fodder  

62  2 

2  5 

3  4 

11  2 

19  3 

1  4 

Rye  fodder   

76  6 

1  8 

2  6 

11  6 

6  8 

0  6 

Sorghum  fodder  

79  4 

1  1 

1  3 

6  1 

11  6 

0  5 

Barley  fodder  

79  0 

1  8 

2  7 

7  9 

8  0 

0  6 

Hungarian  grass  

71  1 

1.7 

3.1 

9  2 

14  2 

0  7 

Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom  

69  9 

1.8 

2.4 

10.8 

14  3 

0  8 

Italian  rye  grass,  coming  in  bloom  . 
Tall  oat  grass,  in  bloom  

73.2 
69  5 

2.5 

2  0 

3.1 

2  4 

6.8 
9  4 

13.3 

15  8 

1.3 
0  9 

Japanese  millet 

75  0 

1  5 

2  1 

7  g 

13  1 

OK 

Barnyard  millet 

75  0 

1  9 

2  4 

7  0 

13  1 

OR 

HAT  FROM  LEGUMES: 
Red  clover  

15  3 

6  2 

12  3 

24  8 

38  1 

3  3 

Red  clover  in  bloom  

20  8 

6  6 

12  4 

21  9 

33  8 

4  5 

Red  clover,  mammoth  

21  2 

6.1 

10  7 

24  5 

33  6 

3  9 

Alsike  clover  

9  7 

8  3 

12  8 

25  6 

40  7 

2  9 

White  clover  

9  7 

8  3 

15  7 

24  1 

39  3 

2  9 

Crimson  clover  

9  6 

8  6 

15  2 

27  2 

36  6 

2  8 

Japan  clover 

11  0 

8  5 

13  8 

24  0 

39  0 

Q    7 

Alfalfa 

8  4 

7  4 

14  3 

25  0 

42  7 

2  2 

Cowpea     

10  7 

7  5 

16  6 

20  1 

42  2 

2  2 

Soy  bean  

11  3 

7  2 

15  4 

22  3 

38  6 

5  2 

Pea  vine  

15  0 

6  7 

13  7 

24  7 

37  6 

2  3 

Vetch 

11  3 

7  9 

17  0 

25  4 

36  1 

2  3 

Serradella 

9  2 

7  2 

15  2 

21  6 

44  2 

2  fi 

Flat  pea                                      

8  4 

7  9 

22  9 

26  2 

31  4 

3  2 

Peanut  vines  (no  nuts)  
Sainfoin 

7.6 
15  0 

10.8 
7  3 

10.7 
14  8 

23.6 
20  4 

42.7 
QQ   5 

4.6 

Q    0 

FRESH  LEGUMES: 
Red  clover,  different  stages  
Alsike  clover  

70.8 
74  8 

2.1 
2  0 

4.4 
3  9 

8.1 

7  4 

13.5 
11  0 

1.1 

0  9 

Crimson  clover 

80  9 

1  7 

3  1 

5  2 

8  4 

0  7 

Alfalfa   . 

71  8 

2  7 

4  8 

7  4 

12  3 

1    0 

Cowpea  

83  6 

1  7 

2  4 

4  8 

71 

0  4 

Soy  bean    .    . 

75  1 

2  6 

4  0 

6  7 

10  6 

i    n 

Serradella  

79  5 

3  2 

2  7 

5  4 

8  6 

07 

Horse  bean  

84  2 

1  2 

2  8 

4  9 

6  5 

0  4 

Flat  pea  

66.7 

2.9 

8.7 

7.9 

12.2 

1.6 

282 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  I. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  (Continued). 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Mitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract 

STRAW: 
Wheat 

9  6 

4  2 

3  4 

38   1 

40  4 

1  3 

Rve 

7  1 

3.2 

3.0 

38.9 

46  6 

1  2 

Oat  

9.2 

5.1 

4.0 

37.0 

42.4 

2  3 

Barley  

14.2 

5.7 

3.5 

36.0 

39.0 

1  5 

Wheat  chaff  

14.3 

9.2 

4.5 

36.0 

34.6 

1  4 

Oat  chaff 

14  3 

10  0 

4  0 

34  0 

36  2 

1  5 

Buckwheat  straw                         .... 

9  9 

5  5 

5  2 

43.0 

35  1 

1  3 

Soy  bean                 

10.1 

5.8 

4.6 

40.4 

37  4 

1  7 

Horse  bean    

9.2 

8.7 

8.8 

37.6 

34.3 

1  4 

SILAGE: 
Corn                                            .  . 

79  1 

1  4 

1  7 

6  0 

11  0 

0  8 

Sorghum                        

76.1 

1  1 

0.8 

6.4 

15.3 

0  3 

Red  clover  

72.0 

2.6 

4.2 

8.4 

11.6 

1  2 

Soy  bean 

74  2 

2  8 

4  1 

9  7 

6  9 

2  2 

Apple  pomace 

85  0 

0  6 

1  2 

3  3 

8  8 

1  i 

Cowpea  vine 

79  3 

2  9 

2  7 

6  0 

7  6 

1  5 

Cow  and  soy  bean  vines  mixed  .... 
Field  pea  vine       

69.8 
50.1 

4.5 
3.5 

3.8 
5.9 

9.5 
13.0 

11.1 
26.0 

1.3 
1  6 

Barnyard  millet  and  soy  bean 

79  0 

2  8 

2  8 

7  2 

7  2 

1  0 

Corn  and  soy  bean 

76  0 

2  4 

2  5 

7  2 

11  1 

0  8 

Rye                                   

80.8 

1  6 

2.4 

5.8 

9  2 

0  3 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS: 
Potato                 .    .    . 

78  9 

1  0 

2  1 

0  6 

17  3 

0  1 

Common  beets    .      .    . 

88  5 

1  0 

1  5 

0  9 

8  0 

0  1 

Sugar  beets  

86  5 

0  9 

1  8 

0  9 

9  8 

0  1 

Mangels     

90  9 

1  1 

1  4 

0  9 

5  5 

0  2 

Turnip     

90.5 

0  8 

1  1 

1  2 

6  2 

0  2 

Rutabaga 

88  6 

1  2 

1  2 

1  3 

7  5 

0  2 

Carrot 

88  6 

1  0 

1  l 

1  3 

7  6 

0  4 

Parsnip                      

88  3 

0  7 

1  6 

1  0 

10  2 

0  2 

Artichoke          

79  5 

1  0 

2  6 

0  8 

15  9 

0  2 

Sweet  potato  

71.1 

1.0 

1.5 

1  3 

24  7 

0  4 

MISCELLANEOUS  : 
Cabbage       

90  5 

1  4 

2  4 

1  5 

3  9 

0  4 

Spurry    

75.7 

4  0 

2  0 

4  9 

12  7 

0  8 

Sugar  beet  leaves 

88  0 

2  4 

2  6 

2  2 

4  4 

[0  4 

Pumpkin  field    . 

90  9 

0  5 

1  3 

1  7 

5  2 

0  4 

Pumpkin   garden  

80  8 

0  9 

1  8 

1  8 

7  9 

0  8 

Prickly  comf  rey  

88  4 

2  2 

2  4 

1  6 

5  1 

0  3 

Rape        

84.5 

2  0 

2  3 

2  6 

5  4 

0  5 

Acorns  fresh 

55  3 

1  0 

2  5 

4  4 

34  8 

1  9 

Apples 

80.8 

0  4 

0  7 

1  2 

16  6 

0  4 

Cow's  milk            

87  2 

0  7 

3  6 

4  9 

3  7 

Cow's  colustrum  

74  6 

1  6 

17  6 

2  7 

3  6 

Mare's  milk  

91.0 

0  4 

2  1 

5  3 

1  2 

Ewe's  milk  

81.3 

0  8 

6  3 

4  7 

6  8 

Goat's  milk  

86  9 

0  9 

3  7 

4  4 

4  1 

Sow's  milk  

80.8 

1  1 

6  2 

4  4 

7  1 

Skim  milk   gravitv 

90  4 

0  7 

3  3 

4  7 

0  9 

Skim  milk,  centrifugal  
Buttermilk  

90.6 
90.1 

0.7 
0.7 

3.1 
4.0 

::: 

5.3 

4.0 

0.3 

1.1 

AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


283 


TABLE  II. — FERTILITY  IN  FARM  PRODUCE. 


Produce. 

Amount. 

Nitrogen, 
pounds. 

Phosphorus, 
pounds. 

Potassium, 
pounds. 

Corn   grain              

100  bushels  .  . 

100 

17 

19 

Corn,  stover  

3  tons  

48 

6 

52 

Corn  crop 

148 

23 

71 

Oats  grain 

100  bushels 

66 

11 

16 

Oats  straw  ,                                  .... 

21A  tons 

31 

5 

52 

Oat  crop         ...        

97 

16 

68 

Wheat,  grain  

50  bushels  

71 

12 

13 

\Vheat  straw 

2%  tons 

25 

4 

45 

Wheat  crop 

96 

16 

58 

Soy  beans                          

25  bushels 

80 

13 

24 

Soy  bean  straw     

214  tons.. 

79 

8 

49 

Soy  bean  crop  

159 

21 

73 

Timothy  hay 

3  tons 

72 

9 

71 

Clover  seed 

4  bushels 

7 

2 

3 

Clover  hay  .... 

4  tons 

160 

20 

120 

Cowpea  hay  

3  tons 

130 

14 

98 

Alfalfa  hay  .--..... 

8  tons 

400 

36 

192 

Cotton,  lint  

1000  pounds  .  . 

3 

0  4 

4 

Cotton  seed 

2000  pounds 

63 

11 

19 

Cotton,  stalks  . 

4000  pounds 

102 

18 

59 

Cotton  crop  ... 

168 

29  4 

82 

Potatoes  

300  bushels 

63 

13 

90 

Sugar  beets  

20  tons 

100 

18 

157 

Apples 

600  bushels 

47 

5 

57 

Leaves 

4  tons 

59 

7 

47 

Wood  growth 

1  tree 

6 

2 

5 

Total  crop  

112 

14 

109 

Fat  cattle  

1000  pounds 

25 

7 

1 

Fat  hogs 

1000  pounds 

18 

3 

1 

Milk.  .. 

10  000  pounds 

57 

7 

12 

Butter... 

400  pounds 

0  8 

0  2 

0  1 

Rye,  grain  

1470  pounds 

28 

12 

9 

Rye,  straw  

3500  pounds 

12 

4 

27 

Rye  crop 

4970  pounds 

40 

16 

36 

Beets,  roots  .  . 

36  800  pounds 

88 

22 

158 

Beets,  tops  

9200  pounds 

26 

11 

69 

Beets,  crop  

46  000  pounds 

114 

33 

227 

Grass 

4000  pounds 

53 

13 

58 

Cotton  cake,  decoraticated 

1000  pounds 

66 

31  2 

15 

Rape  cake  ....               ... 

1000  pounds 

48 

24  6 

13  2 

Linseed  cake  

1000  pounds 

45 

19  6 

14  7 

Cotton  cake,  undecorticated  

1000  pounds 

39 

22  9 

20  1 

Linseed 

1000  pounds 

36 

15  4 

12  3 

Palm  kf>rnpl  mftal,  FJnglish 

1000  pounds 

25 

12  2 

5  5 

Malt  dust  

1000  pounds 

38 

17  2 

19  5 

Bran  

1000  pounds 

22 

32  3 

14  8 

Mangels 

1000  pounds 

1  9 

0  7 

3  Q 

Swedes 

1000  pounds 

2  4 

0  6 

2  0 

Carrots 

1000  pounds 

1  6 

1  0 

3  2 

Turnips  

1000  pounds 

1  8 

0  6 

2  9 

68 


284 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  III. — WEIGHT  PER  BUSHEL,  SEEDING  RATE  PER  ACRE,  NUMBER  OP  SEEDS 
PER  POUND  AND  DEPTH  TO  COVER  FARM  SEEDS. 


Crop. 

Weight  per 
Bushel, 
pounds. 

Rate  of 
Seeding. 

Number 
of  Seeds 
per  Pound. 

Depth 
to  Cover, 
inches. 

GRASSES. 
Bermuda                        

36 

5  pecks  

180,000 

1A~1A 

14-20 

15  pounds  

2,583,000 

\i-y> 

("Vppnincr  bent 

15-20 

8,000,000 

Y±-YL 

Crcst6(i  doer's  tail               

26-30 

897,000 

1A-*A 

Erect  brom6                  

14-15 

4-6  pecks  

162,000 

y2-i 

12-15 

30  pounds 

\i-}4 

10 

578000 

Y± 

17-24 

30  pounds  

275,000 

1A-ZA 

28 

4—6  pecks  

1A-11A 

Kentucky  blue     

6-28 

25  pounds  

2,637,000 

1A-1A 

Meadow  fescue  

12-28 

12-15  pounds.  . 

264,000 

1A 

]V4eadow  foxtail                      .... 

6-14 

40  pounds  

769,000 

Y2 

Orchard                           

12-21 

20  pounds  

457,000 

% 

Perennial  rye                

18-30 

30  pounds  

280,000 

\i-\4 

Redtop                        

12-40 

12-15  pounds.  . 

4,135,000 

Reed  canary                 

14-^8 

20-25  pounds.  . 

632,000 

Rough  stalked  meadow  
Sheep's  fescue  

12-28 
12-28 

26  pounds  
30  pounds  

2,706,000 
802,000 

1A 
H 

Smooth  brome 

12-14 

15-20  pounds.  . 

120,000 

8-1 

Sweet  vernal                           •    •  • 

6-15 

30  pounds  

837,000 

X 

Tall  meadow  fescue         

14-25 

12-20  pounds.  . 

246,000 

% 

Tall  meadow  oat      

7-14 

30-40  pounds.  . 

151,000 

1A-ZA 

Timothy 

44-50 

15  pounds 

1  146000 

1A 

Velvet              

6-7 

20  pounds  

1,268,000 

1A-1A 

12-14 

30  pounds  

1,540,000 

1A 

LEGUMES. 
Alfalfa   

60-63 

15-25  pounds.  . 

210,000 

IA-VA 

Alsike  clover         

60-66 

4-8  pounds  .... 

692,000 

1A 

Bird's  foot  trefoil 

60 

11  pounds  

367,000 

1A-1A 

Bur  clover                         ... 

60 

15  pounds  

Y>-\ 

Common  vetch           

60 

60  pounds  

Cowpeas                     

60 

4-6  pecks  

1-2 

Crimson  clover   

60 

12-15  pounds.  . 

129,000 

1A-±1A 

Field  peas            

52-68 

2  1A-^1A  bushels 

2,400-4,000 

1^-3 

Garden  peas 

60 

3  bushels 

800-2400 

1-3 

Hairy  vetch  

60 

40-60  pounds.. 

75,000 

1^-2 

Horse  bean 

56 

4  bushels  

Japan  clover               

25 

15-25  pounds.  . 

370,000 

1A-ZA 

Kidney  beans              

60 

3,200-4,000 

1-2 

Kidney  vetch        

60-64 

18-22  pounds.  . 

169,000 

>2~1  Y* 

Red  clover         

60-64 

8-14  pounds.  .  . 

304,000 

1A 

Soy  beans          

60 

2-3  pecks  

2,000-7,000 

1-2 

Sweet  clover    

2-4  pecks  

1A~1 

Velvet  beans 

60 

2—6  pecks   . 

\Vhite  clover 

60-63 

3—6  pounds  .  . 

739,000 

1A 

White  lupine                          .    . 

50-60 

1^-2  bushels.. 

1-2 

Yellow  trefoil               

64-66 

4-6  pounds.  .  .  . 

305,000 

Y±-Y* 

ANNUAL  FORAGE  CROPS. 
Barnyard  millet,  Japanese  
Broom  corn  millet  

35 
60 

1-2  pecks  
2-4  pecks  ,  ,  ,  ,  , 

212,000 
212,000 

l/2-ilA 

AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


285 


TABLE  III. — WEIGHT  PER  BUSHEL,  SEEDING  RATE  PER  ACRE,  NUMBER  OF  SEEDS 
PER  POUND  AND  DEPTH  TO  COVER  FARM  SEEDS  (Continued}. 


Crop. 

Weight  per 
Bushel, 
pounds. 

Rate  of 
Seeding. 

Number 
of  Seeds, 
per  pound. 

Depth 
to  Cover, 
inches. 

ANNUAL   FORAGE  CROPS   (Con- 
tinued). 
Millet,  common  1 

50 

50-60 
26 
28-36 
56 
24-50 

48 
42-50 
56 
50-60 
50-60 
56 
70 
43-45 
56 
40-60 
60 
32 

2-3  pecks  

212,000 

1A-1A 

X-l 

X-l 

1-2 

H-1H 

1^-2^ 

1-2H 
1-2 

J4-1 

1-2 
1-2 

1^-4 

1^-3 
H-2 
1-3 
1-3 
1-2H 

Millet,  Hungarian  1 

Millet,  Golden  Wonder  J 
Rape  

3-8  pounds  
40  pounds 

Sainfoin 

22,500 
23,00(K35,600 

Serradella 

40-50  pounds.. 
1^-2  bushels.. 
10-15  pounds.  . 

7-9  pecks 

Sorghum                  

Sunflower      

CEREALS. 
Barley 

Buckwheat 

3-5  pecks 

Flax 

2-8  pecks  .  .  . 

Kaffir  corn                       .    .    . 

3-12  quarts  
5  quarts  

Mik>                

Maize,  shelled  

>  5-16  quarts  .  . 

1-3  bushels.... 
5-10  pecks  

Maize  on  cob 

Rice 

Rye      .... 

Spelt     

Wheat 

5-8  pecks  
8-10  pecks  

6-8  bushels.  .  .  . 
4-6  pounds  .... 
3-4  pounds  .... 
5-8  pounds  
4-8  pounds  
8-15  bushels... 
2-4  pounds  .... 
3-5  pounds  .... 
15-20  pounds.. 
1^-4  bushels.. 

3  pecks 

Oats 

VEGETABLES  AND  ROOTS. 
Artichokes 

Beets          

50-60* 
50* 
50-60* 
45-50* 
60 
55-60* 
50-60* 
50-60* 
50-55 

30-48 
44 
30 
44 

25,000 
384,000 

Carrots  

#-% 
X-l 
H-l 

2-4 
Yr-l 
H-l 

« 

1-2 
1^-3 
1-2 

M  angels 

Parsnip 

112,000 
208,666 

Potato 

Turnip        .    . 

Rutabaga           

Sugar  beets    

Sweet  potato 

FIBER. 
Broom  corn 

Cotton,  Sea  Island  

1  1-3  bushels.  . 
3^-4  pecks... 

Cotton,  upland 

Hemp 

*  Roots. 


286 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  IV. — WATER  REQUIREMENTS  OF  VARIOUS  STANDARD  CROPS. 


Crop. 

Location. 

Experimenter. 

Pounds  Water  per 
Pound  Dry  Matter. 

Max- 
imum. 

Min- 
imum. 

Mean.* 

Wheat 

Germany  
Germany 

Sorauer 

708 

390 
333 
544 
534 
235 
489 
359 
334 
395 

328 

468 

427 

286 
226 
309 

708 
339 
333 
544 
507 
235 
458 
326 
271 
360 
665 
600 
401 
469 
514 
614 
260 
774 
490 
297 
365 
468 
388 
539 
233 
337 
348 
369 
377 
469 
724 
235 
416 
292 
563 
477 
800 
281 
423 
448 
1102 
761 
823 
1068 
251 
330 
481 
497 
377 
811 

Oats  

Hellriegel 

Germany 

Von  Seelhorst 

India 

Leather.  .  .  . 

Akron,  Col 

Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Lawes  

England          

Logan,  Utah  

Widstoe  

Davis,  Cal  

Fortier  and  Beckett  .  . 
Fortier  and  Gieseker  . 
Fortier  and  Peterson  . 
Wollny  

Bozeman,  Mont  .... 
Reno  Nev  .  . 

Germany  

Barley  

Germany  

Sorauer     

Germany  

Hellriegel  

464 

339 

India  

Leather  

Wisconsin 

King 

526 
639 
262 

502 

598 
258 

Akron,  Col  
England  

Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Lawes 

Corn  

Germany  

Wollny       .    . 

Germany  

Sorauer     

Germany  

Hellriegel  

366 
454 

ioi 

544 

263 
295 

375 
527 

Germany 

Von  Seelhorst 

India 

Leather 

Wisconsin  

King 

Akron,  Col  

Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Wollny  

Germany  

Rye.. 

India  

Leather  

Wisconsin 

King 

390 
420 
438 
700 

305 
319 
315 
343 

Akron  Col   .    . 

Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Hellriegel  . 

Germany  

Peas  

Germany  
Akron,  Col  

Von  Seelhorst  
Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Lawes 

England 

Potatoes  

Germany  
Germany  

Wollny 

353 

23i 

Hellriegel  
Leather 

India  

Wisconsin  
Akron,  Col  

King  .    .    . 

Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Von  Seelhorst  
King  
Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Fortier  and  Beckett.. 

294 

1265 
971 

889 

268 

1005 
522 

757 

Germany  
Wisconsin  
Akron,  Col 

Alfalfa,  1  year  .  . 
Alfalfa,  2  years  . 

Clover,  red  .... 

Sugar  beets  .... 
Rice  

Davis,  Cal  

State  College,  N.  M. 
Akron,  Col  

Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 
Lawes 

England 

Germany  . 

Hellriegel  
King  
Widstoe 

363 
564 

297 
398 

Wisconsin  
Logan,  Utah  
Akron  Col 

Briggs  and  Shantz  .  .  . 

LfifltVipr 

India  

*  This  column  represents  the  average  of  all  reliable  and  comparable  tests. 


AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


287 


TABLE  V. — COST  PER  ACRE,  PRODUCING  CROPS.* 


Crop. 


Average  Cost. 


Barley,  fall  plowed $8.21 

Clover,  cut  for  seed 6 . 50 

Corn,  ears  husked  from  standing  stalks 10 . 44 

Corn,  cut,  shocked  and  shredded 15 . 30 

Corn,  cut,  shocked  and  hauled  in  from  field 10.26 

Corn,  grown  thickly  and  siloed 19 . 89 

Flaxseed,  threshed  from  windrow 7.50 

Flaxseed,  stacked  from  windrow 7 . 85 

Flaxseed,  bound,  shocked,  stacked,  threshed 7 . 28 

Fodder  corn,  cut  and  shocked  in  field 9 . 65 

Fodder  corn,  cut,  shocked  and  stacked 12 . 36 

Hay,  timothy  and  clover,  first  crop 5 . 59 

Hay,  timothy  and  clover,  two  cuttings 7 . 18 

Hay,  millet 7 . 10 

Hay,  wild  grasses 4 .04 

Hay,  timothy 3.39 

Hemp 6.74 

Mangels 32.68 

Oats,  fall  plowed 8.86 

Oats,  on  disked  corn  stubble '. 8 . 88 

Potatoes,  machine  production 26 . 37 

Potatoes,  machine  production,  use  of  fertilizer 37.72 

Timothy,  cut  for  seed 4 . 43 

Wheat,  fall  plowed 7.25 


*Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  117,  page  29. 


TABLE  VI. — COST  OP  FARM  HORSE  POWER.* 


Agricultural  Region. 


Total  Annual  Cost  of 

Keeping  One  Horse. 

Average  5  Years,  1908-12. 


Actual  Cost  per  Hour 

of  Work  for  One  Horse. 

Average  9  Years,  1904-12. 


Southeastern  Minnesota . 
Southwestern  Minnesota. 
Northwestern  Minnesota. 


S103.27 

100.64 

84.67 


9.72  cents 
8.64  cents f 
8.05  cents 


NOTE. — The  cost  figures  shown  in  this  table  have  been  selected  from  the  statistical  data  of  the 
Division  of  Farm  Management  of  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  These  figures  are 
not  estimates,  but  actual  records  from  a  large  number  of  Minnesota  farms.  The  averages  are  based  on 
records  of  about  450  horses  in  each  region.  The  annual  cost  includes  interest  on  investment,  deprecia- 
tion, harness  depreciation,  shoeing,  feecl,  labor  and  miscellaneous  expense.  Feed  is  the  largest  item  in 
the  cost  of  farm  horse  power,  representing  on  the  average  %  to  %  of  the  total  cost.  The  cost  of  horse 
power  per  hour  is  computed  by  dividing  the  total  annual  cost  by  the  actual  number  of  hours  worked. 

*  Taken  from  "Field  Management  and  Crop  Rotation,"  by  Parker, 
f  Seven-year  average. 


288  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

TABLE  VII. — WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 

16  ounces  (oz.) =  1  pound  (Ib.) . 

100  pounds =1  hundredweight  (cwt.). 

20  cwt =  1  ton  (T.). 

1  ton =20  cwt.  or  2000  Ibs.  or  32,000  oz. 

DRY  MEASURE. 

2  pints  (pt.) =1  quart  (qt.). 

8  qts =1  peck  (pk.). 

4  pks =1  bushel  (bu.). 

1  bu =2150.42  cu.  in. 

LIQUID   MEASURE. 

4  gills  (gi.) =1  pint  (pt.). 

2  pints =1  quart  (qt.). 

4  quarts =1  gallon  (gal.). 

31^  gallons =1  barrel  (bbl.). 

U.  S.  gallon =231  cu.  in. 

1Y^  gallons  water =  1  cu.  ft.  approximately. 

LINEAR  MEASURE. 

12  inches  (in.) =1  foot  (ft.). 

3  feet  (ft.) =1  yard  (yd.). 

5^2  yds.  or  \§y2  ft =1  rod  (id.). 

320  rds =1  mile  (mi.). 

1  mile  or  320  rds.  or  1760  yds.  or  5280  ft.  or  63,360  ins. 

SQUARE   MEASURE. 

144  square  inches  (sq.  in.) =1  square  foot  (sq.  ft.). 

9  square  feet  (sq.  ft.) =1  square  yard  (sq.  yd.). 

30*4  sq.  yds =1  square  rod  (sq.  rd.). 

160  sq.  rds =1  acre  (a.). 

640  acres =1  square  mile  (sq.  mi.). 

1  sq.  mi =1  section. 

36  sections =1  township  (twp.) 

43,560  sq.  ft =1  acre. 

SOLID   OR   CUBIC   MEASURE. 

1728  cubic  inches  (cu.  in.) =1  cubic  foot  (cu.  ft.). 

27  cu.  ft =1  cubic  yard  (cu.  yd.). 

1  cu.  yd =27  cu.  ft.  or  46,656  cu.  in. 

1  cu.  yd =1  load. 

24%  cu.  ft =1  perch. 

128  cu.  ft.  or  8  ft.  X  4  ft.  X  4  ft =  1  cord. 

1  ft.  x  12  in.  x  1  in =1  board  foot. 

SURVEYOR'S  LINEAR  MEASURE. 

7.92  inches =1  link. 

100  links =1  chain. 

80  chains =1  mile. 

Gunter's  chain  is  the  unit  and  is  66  feet  long. 

SURVEYOR'S  SQUARE  MEASURE. 
10,000  sq.  links =1  square  chain. 

10  sq.  chains =1  acre. 

10  chains  square =10  acres. 


14  DAY  USE 

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on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
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